 Introduction

 The gas turbine engines

 Principle of gas turbine
 Gas turbine cycle
 Gas turbine cycle with inter cooling and reheating
 Exhaust recovery devices
 Starter system
 Fuel system
 Control system and governor
 Lubrication system
 Wenkel rotory engines
 Adeabetic engine
 VCR engines
 BICERA piston – principle, mechanism and operation
 A turbine is any kind of spinning device that uses the action of a
fluid to produce work. Typical fluids are: air, wind, water, steam
and helium.
 In the history of energy conversion, however, the gas turbine is
relatively new. The first practical gas turbine used to generate
electricity ran at Neuchatel, Switzerland in 1939
 Actually a gas turbine has a compressor to draw in and compress
gas (most usually air); a combustor (or burner) to add fuel to
heat the compressed air; and a turbine to extract power from the
hot air flow.
 The gas turbine is an internal combustion (IC) engine employing
a continuous combustion process. This differs from the
intermittent combustion occurring in Diesel and gasoline
automotive IC engines.
 Very high power-to-weight ratio
 More size efficient
 Moves in one direction only, with fewer moving parts
 Low operating pressures
 High operation speeds
 Low lubricating oil cost and consumption
 Energy is added to the gas stream
 Combustion increases the temperature, velocity, and volume of the
gas flow
 Turbine rotates, powering the compressor
 Energy is then extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air
and thrust
Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by
the Brayton cycle, In this cycle:
1. air is compressed isentropically
2. combustion occurs at constant pressure
3. heated air expands through the turbine isentropically
4. heat is rejected into the atmosphere
Q in  m (h3  h2 ) Q out  m (h4  h1 )
Q in  mC
 p (T3  T2 ) Q out  mC
 p (T4  T1 )

Q in Q out
qin   C p (T3  T2 ) qout   C p (T4  T1 )
m
m
Q out qout (T4  T1 )
 th , Brayton  1

 1  th , Brayton  1
Qin qin (T3  T2 )
C p (T4  T1 ) T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1  1
C p (T3  T2 ) T2 (T3 / T2  1)

Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

 Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2
T1
The Brayton cycle efficiency becomes  th , Brayton  1 
T2

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

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 th , Brayton  1  ( k 1)/ k
rp
where the pressure ratio is rp = P2/P1

 The work ratio, defined as the ratio of the net work output from the system
to the turbine work, is given by ( 1) ( 1)
T4 (rp  - 1) - T1 (rp  - 1)
 ( 1)
W  Wc (T - T ) - (T2 - T1 )
rw  t  3 4 T4 (rp  - 1)
Wt (T3 - T4 )
T1 T1 ( 1)
 1  1 rp 
T4 T3 7
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
The deviation of actual compressor and turbine behavior from the
idealized isentropic behavior can be accurately accounted for by
utilizing the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and compressor
defined as (equations at bottom). Where states 2a and 4a are the actual
exit states of the compressor and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s
are the corresponding states for isentropic case.

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 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration

We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat

transferred to the compressor gases in the regenerator to the
maximum possible heat transfer to the compressor gases.

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Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
For ideal heat exchange in regenerator
with 100% effectiveness,
Upon substitution it yields T5' = T4

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Intercooling and reheating :- are two important ways to improve the
performance of the Brayton cycle with regeneration.

The intermediate pressure of

intercooling
The intermediate pressure of
Reheating
pressure ratios of compression

pressure ratios of compression

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 If the compression takes place in two stages 1-2 and 3-4 and the air is cooled
at constant intermediate pressure pi

Wc  (h 2 - h1 )  (h 4 - h 3 )  C p (T2 - T1 )  C p (T4 - T3 )

Wt  (h 6 - h7)  (h 8 - h 9 )  C p (T6 - T7 )  C p (T8 - T9 )

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 Starter System
 The function of the starter system is to accelerate the turbine to a speed
sufficient enough for it to be able to start on its own power.
 Unlike the compression ignition engine, which may require only a few
revolutions of cranking, the gas turbine engine must be cranked to 10 to
20 percent speed before it can sustain itself at all, and, to between 30 to
40 percent speed to complete the start within reasonable time and
temperature limits.
 This is because the compressor and the turbine components of the engine
are designed to operate efficiently at high speed where their power level is
high.
 Several different types of starting systems are possible, such as electric,
engine, high pressure impingement, hydraulic, hand crank and
compressed air or gas.

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 Fuel System
 The fuel system consists of piping, manifold, and one or more pumps
required for delivering fuel to the combustor at a sufficient pressure to
perform injection satisfactorily.
 Elements of the control system such as shut-off valves and regulators are
found in fuel systems between the inlet and combustor.

1. Gas Fuel System.

 The pressure required to inject a gaseous fuel is essentially compressor

discharge pressure plus the pressure losses in the control system and
manifolds.
 A gaseous fuel injector usually consists of a tube with holes in it. The
pressure drop across this injector is very small.

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2. Liquid Fuel System.

 The primary requirement for a liquid fuel system is that it has sufficient
pressure to permit a pressure drop across the injector, which is great
enough to atomize the fuel.
 The injector is usually a continuously atomizing spray nozzle.
 The pressure requirement for atomization varies depending on fuel
viscosity and surface tension.
 The fuel pump is often an integral part of the control system.

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 Control Systems and Governor
 The sequence of events required to start, run, and shut down a gas
turbine can be controlled manually but is usually handled
automatically.

1. Starting Controls.

 After cranking has started, and sufficient speed has been reached, the
ignition system is energized and fuel is admitted to the combustor- to
start combustion.
 The starter continues to assist the engine, usually until it attains 30 to
40 percent of full speed, beyond which the engine is capable of
continuing the start under its own power.

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2. Acceleration and Shutdown Controls.
 Acceleration controller schedules fuel to provide an acceleration rate
within turbine design limits.
 The speed governor provides fuel corrections as needed to maintain
turbine speed under varying load.
 A shut down signal supplied either manually or by any one of several
protective devices causes the fuel valve to be closed, thus stopping the
engine

3. Protective Controls.

 The following protective controls are usually supplied with the gas
turbine.
a) Engine Over-speed. This control provides a means of detecting
speeds approaching safety limits of the engine.

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a) Temperature. Protection for the turbine inlet temperature is
provided. Exhaust temperatures are more easily measured and are
directly related to inlet temperatures.
b) Low Lubrication Oil Pressure.
c) High Lubrication Oil Temperature.
d) Flame Detection. The condition exist where it is important to know
that combustion is proceeding normally in order to prevent damage
to the engine.
e) Vibration. The vibration may be caused due to an unbalance in the
rotating parts of the turbine or due to unstable combustion.
f) Fuel Under-pressure. Low fuel pressure either momentary or
sporadic could result in erratic operation and hazardous conditions.

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 Governor
 The operation of a gas turbine engine generally requires automatic fuel
regulation for both starting and normal operation.
 The governor may perform both functions or a separate acceleration
limiter may be used for starting.
 Fuel control systems very considerably depending upon a number of
factors, such as
 degree of automation desired,
 closeness of speed regulation,
 operating characteristics of the particular engine,
 environmental considerations, and
 cost.

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 Lubrication System
 The function of the lubrication system is to lubricate and cool bearings
and gears, whether the engine uses journal bearings, anti-friction
bearings, or a mixture of the two.
 Smaller engines, particularly those with anti-friction bearings, use a
single engine-driven lubricating pump, whereas large engines use
lubricating pumps driven separately from the engine.
 In cold surroundings, an oil pre-start heater is used.

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 Wankel or Rotary engine
•No Piston.

•Rotor that spins in an oval

chamber (shaped like a flat
figure 8) by burning fuel.

•Rotor has three lobes.

•Rotor rotates in an eccentric

pattern.

•The lobes remain in contact with

the oval housing, creating a tight
seal.
 Intake stroke

The fuel/air mixture is drawn in the intake

port during this phase of the rotation.
 Compression stroke

The mixture is compressed here.

 Power stroke
Spark plug fires and the mixture burns here,
driving the rotor around.
 Exhaust stroke
And the exhaust is expelled here.
 4 - Strokes
All the four strokes – intake, compression, power and
exhaust – are going on at the same time around the rotor.
Variable compression Ratio (VCR) engines
Different methods to obtain variable compression ratio are moving the cylinder
head, variation of combustion chamber volume, variation of piston deck height,
moving the crankpin or crankshaft, modification of connecting rod geometry
1. Moving Head: This concept combines head and liners into a mono block
construction which pivots with respect to the remainder of the engine. The
linkage serves to tilt the A mono head relative to the crankcase in order to vary
the TDC position of the piston. By means of actuator and linkage mechanism
the compression ratio can be varied from 8 to 14
2. VARIATION OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER VOLUME
In order to vary the combustion chamber volume a secondary piston or valve is
used .The piston could be maintained at an Intermediate position,
corresponding to the optimum compression ratio for a particular condition .
The combustion chamber volume is increased to reduce the compression ratio
by moving a small secondary piston or valve which communicates with the
Chamber.
3. Variable height piston:
Variation in compression height of the piston offers potentially the most
attractive route to the production of VCR engine since it requires relatively
minor changes to the basic engine architecture when compared to other options.
Unfortunately, it requires a significant increase in reciprocating mass and, more
importantly, a means to activate the height variation within a high speed
reciprocating assembly.
This is typically proposed by means of hydraulics using the engine lubricating
oil, however reliable control of the necessary oil flow becomes a major
problem.
4. MOVING THE CRANKSHAFT AXIS
In this method a crankshaft bearings are carried in an eccentrically
mounted carrier that can rotate to raise or lower the top dead centre
(TDC) positions of the pistons in the cylinders. The compression ratio is
adjustable by varying the rotation of the eccentric carrier.
5. CON ROD LINKAGES
A popular approach has been developed to replace the conventional con
rod with a 2 piece design in which an upper member connects with the
piston while a lower member connects with the crankshaft. The shorter
crank throw allowed room for the link system, which was anchored by an
eccentric rotary actuator
British Internal Combustion Engines Research
Institute (BICERI)
 The most promising VCR mechanism is the use of special piston to
lower or raise the piston skirt as developed by British Internal
Combustion Engines Research Institute (BICERI) in collaboration with
continental Aviation and Engineering Corporation.
 The AVCR-1100 engine is used in U.S. German Main Battle Tank MBT-
70.
 The VCR piston, as developed by BICERI is shown in Fig. 2.9.
 It consists of two main pieces A and B called shell and the carrier
respectively.
 The carrier is mounted on a gudgeon pin in the conventional manner
while the shell A slides over the carrier B to vary the clearance volume.

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Fig, 2.9 BICERI variable compression ratio engine piston.

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 These two parts of the piston are so arranged that two chambers C and
D are formed between them which are kept full of lubricating oil supplied
via a hole in the connecting rod and non-return valve F from the
lubricating system.
 The gas load is carried by the oil in the upper chamber C.
 With the increase in load the gas pressure is increased to a pre-set value,
the spring loaded relief valve L opens and discharges oil to the main
sump.
 The piston shell slides down to a position decided by the relationship
between the oil pressure in two chambers and the cylinder gas pressure,
and thus a change in compression ratio is affected.

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