Unit – 4 MACHINE TOOLS

18MEC103T Manufacturing Technology

SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur – 603 203

 Syllabus
MACHINE TOOLS
Milling Machine , Classification of milling machines and its basic construction, Types of
cutter in milling machines, Types of milling operations( up and down, peripheral, face
milling), Simple and differential Indexing methods and its calculations
Shaping and slotting Machine, Its description and Operations, Planing (Double house
and open side) ,Quick return mechanism,Work andTool holding devices.
Boring machine and its Specification, operations, Jig boring machine, Specification of
Broaching machine, its types and operations (internal, surface) Broaching Tool
Nomenclature.
Grinding Process, Types of Grinding machines-surface, cylindrical, center less, Types of
abrasives, Lapping, Buffing, Honing, and Super finishing
TEXT BOOKS
1. Sharma, P.C., A textbook of Production Technology – Vol I and II, S. Chand & Company Ltd., New
Delhi, 1996.
2. Rao, P.N., Manufacturing Technology, Vol I & II, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1998.

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Chapman W. A. J., Workshop Technology Vol. I and II, Arnold Publisher, New Delhi, 1998.
2. Hajra Choudhary, S. K. and Hajra Choudhary, A. K., Elements of Manufacturing Technology, Vol II,
Media Publishers, Bombay, 1988.
3. Jain. R. K., Production Technology, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1988.
4. Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addision Wesley Congmen Pvt. Ltd.,
Singapore, 2000.
 Milling Process
A machine operation in which a work part is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with
multiple edges. (milling machine)

 Milling is the removal of metal by feeding the work past a rotating multi-toothed
cutter.

 In this operation the material removal rate (MRR) is enhanced as the cutter
rotates at a high cutting speed.

 The surface quality is also improved due to the multi-cutting edges of the milling
cutter.

 The action of the milling cutter is totally different from that of a drill or a turning
tool.

 In turning and drilling, the tools are kept continuously in contact with the material
to be cut, whereas milling is an intermittent process, as each tooth produces a
chip of variable thickness.

 Milling operations may be classified as peripheral (plain) milling or face (end)

milling
 Types
Peripheral milling
Slab, slotting, side and straddle milling, Up Milling (Conventional) & down milling
(Climb)

Facing milling
Conventional face, Partial face, End, Profile, Pocket & contour millings
 Peripheral milling
The cutting occurs by the teeth arranged on the periphery of the milling cutter,
and the generated surface is a plane parallel to the cutter axis.

Peripheral milling is usually performed on a horizontal milling machine.

For this reason, it is sometimes called horizontal milling.

The appearance of the surface and also the type of chip formation are affected by
the direction of cutter rotation with respect to the movement of the WP.

In this regard, two types of peripheral milling are differentiable, namely, up-milling
and down-milling.
Up-milling Down-milling
 Up-milling
Up-milling is accomplished by rotating the cutter against the direction of the feed
of the WP.

The tooth picks up from the material gradually; that is, the chip starts with no
thickness and increases in size as the teeth progress through the cut.

This means that the cycle of operation to remove the chip is first a sliding action at
the beginning and then a crushing action takes place, which is followed by the
actual cutting action.

In some metals, up-milling leads to strain hardening of the machined surface, and
also to chattering and excessive teeth blunting.
Advantages of up-milling
It does not require a backlash eliminator.
It is safer in operation (the cutter does not climb on
the work).
Loads on teeth are acting gradually.
Built-up edge (BUE) fragments are absent from the
machined surface.
The milling cutter is not affected by the sandy or scaly surfaces of the work.
 Down-Milling (Climb Milling)
It is accomplished by rotating the cutter in the direction of
the work feed.

In climb milling, as implied by the name, the milling cutter

attempts to climb the WP.

Chips are cut to maximum thickness at initial engagement of cutter teeth with the
work, and decrease to zero at the end of its engagement.
The cutting forces in down milling are directed downward.
Down-milling should not be attempted if machines do not have enough rigidity and
are not provided with backlash eliminators.
Under such circumstances, the cutter climbs up on the WP and the arbor and
spindle may be damaged.
Advantages
Fixtures are simpler and less costly, as cutting forces are acting downward.
Flat WPs or plates that cannot be firmly held can be machined by down-milling.
Cutter with higher rake angles can be used, which decreases the power
requirements.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN UP MILLING & DOWN MILLING
SL. UP MILLING DOWN MILLING (CLIMB
NO. (CONVENTIONAL MILLING) MILLING)

01 Work piece fed in the opposite direction Work piece fed in the same
that of the cutter. direction that of the cutter.

02 Chips are progressively thicker. Chips are progressively thinner.

03 Strong clamping is required since the Strong clamping is not required since the
cutting force is directed upwards & tends cutting force is directed downwards & keep the
to lift the work piece. work piece pressed to the table.

04 Gives poor surface finish, since chips gets Gives good surface finish, since the chips are
accumulated at the cutting zone. thrown away during cutting.

05 Used for hard materials. Used for soft materials and

finishing operations.
 Face Milling
In face milling, the generated surface is at a right angle to the cutter axis.

When using cutters of large diameters, it is a good practice to tilt the spindle
head slightly at an angle of 1–3° to provide some clearance, which leads to an
improved surface finish and eliminate tool blunting.

Face milling is usually performed on vertical milling machines; for this reason, the
process is called vertical milling, which is more productive than plain milling.
Classification of Milling machines
According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table

Knee type: small and medium duty

machines the table with the
job/work travels over the bed
(guides) in horizontal (X) and
transverse (Y) directions and the
bed with the table and job on it
moves vertically (Z) up and down.
Classification of Milling machines
According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table

Bed type : Usually of

larger size and capacity;
the vertical feed is given to
the milling head instead of
the knee type bed
Classification of Milling machines
According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table

Planer type : These heavy

duty large machines, called
plano-miller, look like
planing machine where the
single point tools are
replaced by one or a
number of milling heads;
generally used for
machining a number of
longitudinal flat surfaces
simultaneously.
Milling machines

Rotary table type : This

high production milling
machines possess one
large rotary work-table and
one or two vertical spindles.
the positions of the job(s)
and the milling head are
adjusted according to the
size and shape of the job.
Classification of Milling machines
According to the orientation of the spindle(s).

Horizontal spindle type:

Classification of Milling machines
According to the orientation of the spindle(s).

Vertical spindle type:

Classification of Milling machines
According to the orientation of the spindle(s).

Universal head milling

machine:
Milling Machines
 Milling Cutters
 The milling cutters are selected for each specified machining duty.

 The milling cutter may be provided with a hole to be mounted on the arbor of the
horizontal milling machines, or provided with a straight or tapered shank for
mounting on the vertical or horizontal milling machine.

Types of milling cutters

Plain milling cutters
Face milling cutters
Side milling cutters
Interlocking (staggered) side mills
Slitting saws
Angle milling cutters
End mills
Key-cutters
Inserted tool milling cutters
Gear milling cutters
 Plain milling cutters are either straight or helical ones. Helical milling
cutters are preferred for large cutting widths to provide smooth cutting and
improved surface quality (Figure .a). Plain milling cutters are mainly used on
horizontal milling machines.

 Face milling cutters are used for the production of horizontal (Figure .b),
vertical (Figure .c), or inclined (Figure .d) flat surfaces. They are used on
vertical milling machines, planer type milling machines, and vertical milling
machines with the spindle swiveled to the required angle α, respectively.
 Side milling cutters are clamped on the arbor of the horizontal milling machine
and are used for machining of the vertical surface of a shoulder (Figure .e) or
cutting a keyway (Figure .f).

 Interlocking (staggered) side mills (Figure .g) mounted on the arbor of the
horizontal milling machines are intended to cut wide keyways and cavities.
 Slitting saws (Figure .h) are used on horizontal milling machines.

 Angle milling cutters, used on horizontal milling machines, for the production of
longitudinal grooves (Figure .i) or for edge chamfering.

 End mills are tools of a shank type, which can be mounted on vertical milling
machines (or directly in the spindle nose of horizontal milling machines). End mills
may be employed in machining keyways (Figure .j) or vertical surfaces (Figure .k).
 Key-cutters are also of the shank type that can be used on vertical
milling machines. They may be used for single-pass milling or multipass
milling operations (Figures l and m).

 Form-milling cutters are mounted on horizontal milling machines.

Form cutters may be either concave as shown in Figure .n or convex
as in Figure .o.
 T-slot cutters are used for milling T-slots and are available in different sizes. The
T-slot is machined on a vertical milling machine in two steps: Slotting with end mill
(Figure .j) and Cutting with T-slot cutter (Figure .p)

 Compound milling cutters are mainly used to produce compound surfaces.

These cutters realize high productivity and accuracy (Figure .q).
 Inserted tool milling cutters have a main body that is fabricated from tough and
less expensive steel.
 The teeth are made of alloy tool steel, HSS, carbides, ceramics, or cubic boron
nitride (CBN) and mechanically attached to the body using set screws and in
some cases are brazed.
 Cutters of this type are confined usually to large-diameter face milling cutters or
horizontal milling cutters (Figure .q).
 Gear milling cutters are used for the production of spur and helical gears on
vertical or horizontal milling machines (Figures .r and .s). Gear cutters are form-
relieved cutters, which are used to mill contoured surfaces. They are sharpened at
the tooth face.

Hobbing machines and gear shapers are used to cut gears for mass production and
high accuracy demands.
Materials for Milling Cutters
High Carbon Steel, High Speed Steel, Stellite, Cemented Carbides and ceramics
 Milling Operations
1. Plain or Slab Milling 1. Slot and groove milling

2. Face Milling 2. Keyway milling

3. Angular Milling 3. Slitting or saw milling

4. Form Milling 4. Side Milling

5. Straddle Milling 5. End Milling

6. Gang Milling 6. Profile Milling

7. Gear Milling
8. Cam Milling
9. Thread Milling
10. Helical Milling
When two or more parallel vertical surfaces
are machined at a single cut, the operation
is called straddle milling. Straddle
milling is accomplished by mounting two
side milling cutters on the same arbor, set
apart at an exact spacing.
Horizontal type
Vertical type
Milling Cutters
Milled Components
 Indexing or Dividing Heads
Dividing Heads
Heads help in changing the angular position of the component in relation to the
cutter.
They are mainly employed on knee-type milling machines to enhance their
capabilities toward milling straight and helical flutes, slots, grooves, and gashes
whose features are equally spaced about the circumference of a blank (and less
frequently unequally spaced).

Such jobs include milling of spur and helical gears, spline shafts, twist drills,
reamers, milling cutters, and others.

Dividing heads are capable of indexing the WP through predetermined angles. In

addition to the indexing operation, the dividing head continuously rotates the WP,
which is set at the required helix angle during milling of helical slots and helical
gears.
3-Types
1. Plain dividing Head
2. Universal Dividing Head
3. Optical Dividing Head
Indexing Methods
Direct indexing
Plain or Simple Indexing
Compound Indexing
Differential indexing
Angular indexing
Simple Indexing
This method of indexing involves the use of crank, Worm, Worm wheel and
indexing plate.

Worm wheel contains 40 teeth and the worm is single start and it is directly
mounted in spindle.

Worm has single start thread and the worm wheel 40 teeth, with one turn of the
crank, the worm wheel will rotate through one pitch distance equal to 1/40 of the
revolution.

For two divisions on the work, the crank will make 40/2 = 20turns for each divisions

Similarly for n divisions on the work 40/n

Example: 23 teeth
Crank movement = 40/23 = (1 (17/23))

In the fraction the numerator denotes the number of holes to be moved and the
denominator the number of holes on the circle to be used.

For each division on the job the crank will make on complete revolution and will
move further through 17 holes on 23 holes circle
Simple Indexing
 Compound Indexing
This method of indexing used when number of divisions required is outside the
range of simple indexing.

In compound indexing, a plunge (5) is inserted in the bore of the work spindle while
the index plate is unlocked.

The spindle drives the plate through change and bevel gears while the crank
through the worm is driving the spindle.
Hence, the required turn of the work spindle is obtained as sum of two turns

A turn of the index crank (2) relative to the index plate (1)

A turn of the index plate itself, which is driven from the work spindle through
change gears (a/b) × (c/d) to provide the correction

Depending on the setup, the index plate rotates either in the same direction with
the index crank or in the opposite direction.

An idler gear should be used if the crank and plate move in opposite directions to
each other

Consider crank turned 3 holes on a 18 holes circle and the index plate and crank
both turned further 5 holes on 20 holes circle.
(3/18) + (5/20) = 5/12

Since 40 turns of the worm will turn the work through 1 revolution.

Therefore 5/12 turns of the worm will turn the work through (5/(12x40)) revolution
= 1/96 of a revolution ( this will enable 96 divisions on the work)
 These processes are used for machining horizontal, vertical, and inclined flat
and contoured surfaces, slots, grooves, and other recesses by means of special
single-point tools.

 The difference between these three processes is that in planing, the work is
reciprocated and the tool is fed across the work, while in shaping and slotting,
the tool is reciprocating and the work is fed across the cutting tool.

 Moreover, the tool travel is horizontal in shaping and planing and vertical in
case of slotting
 It is the same as of turning, where metals are removed by single point tools similar
in shape to lathe tools.
 However, these operations differ from turning in that the cutting action is
intermittent, and chips are removed only during the forward movement of the tool
or the work.
 Moreover, the conditions under which shaping, planing, and slotting tools are less
favorable than in turning, even though the tools have the opportunity to cool
during the return stroke, when no cutting takes place.

 That is because these tools operate under severe impact conditions for these
conditions, the related machine and tools are designed to be more rigid and
strongly dimensioned, and the cutting speed in most cases does not exceed 60
m/min
Consequently, tools used in these processes should not be shock-sensitive, such
as ceramics and CBN.

It is sufficient to use low-cost and easily sharpened tools such as HSS and
carbides.

The limited cutting speed and the time lost during the reverse stroke are the main
reasons behind the low productivity of shaping, planing, and slotting compared to
turning.

However, in planing, not only the productivity but also the accuracy are enhanced
due to the possibility of using multiple tooling in one setting.
Difference between Shaper and Planer
Shapers
 A shaper machine is commonly used in single-piece and small-lot production as well as in
repair shops and tool rooms.

 Owing to its limited stroke length, it is conveniently adapted to small jobs and best suited
for surfaces comprising straight-line elements and contoured surfaces when the shaper is
equipped with a tracing attachment.

 It is also applicable for cutting keyways and splines on shafts.

Base
 It is rigid and heavy cast iron body to resist vibration and takes up high
compressive load.
 It supports all other parts of the machine, which are mounted over it.
 The base may be rigidly bolted to the floor of the shop or on the bench
according to the size of the machine.
Column
 The column is a box shaped casting mounted upon the base. It houses the
ram-driving mechanism.
 Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the top of the column
on which the ram reciprocates.
Cross rail
 Cross rail of shaper has two parallel guide ways on its top in the vertical
plane that is perpendicular to the rail axis.
 It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column.
 It consists mechanism for raising and lowering the table to accommodate
different sizes of jobs by rotating an elevating screw which causes the cross
rail to slide up and down on the vertical face of the column.
 A horizontal cross feed screw is fitted within the cross rail and parallel to the
top guide ways of the cross rail. This screw actuates the table to move in a
crosswise direction.
Saddle
 The saddle is located on the cross rail and holds the table on its top.
 Crosswise movement of the saddle by rotation the cross feed screw
by hand or power causes the table to move sideways.
Table
 The table is a box like casting having T -slots both on the top and
sides for clamping the work.
 It is bolted to the saddle and receives crosswise and vertical
movements from the saddle and cross rail.
Ram
 It is the reciprocating part of the shaper, which reciprocates on the
guideways provided above the column.
 Ram is connected to the reciprocating mechanism contained within
the column.
Tool head
 The tool head of a shaper performs the following functions-
(1) It holds the tool rigidly,
(2) It provides vertical and angular feed movement of the tool, and
(3) It allows the tool to have an automatic relief during its return stroke.
 The various parts of tool head of shaper are apron clamping bolt, clapper box,
tool post, down feed, screw micrometer dial, down feed screw, vertical slide,
apron washer, apron swivel pin, and swivel base.
 By rotating the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool gives
down feed or angular feed movement while machining vertical or angular
surface.
 The amount of feed or depth of cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on the
top of the down feed screw.
 Apron consisting of clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon
the vertical slide by a screw.
 The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the clapper block,
which is connected to it by means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted upon
the clapper block.
 On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits securely to the clapper box
to make a rigid tool support.
 On the return stroke a slight frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block
out of the clapper box a sufficient amount preventing the tool cutting edge from
dragging and consequent wear. The work surface is also prevented from any
damage due to dragging.
 SHAPER MECHANISM
 In a standard shaper metal is removed in the forward cutting
stroke, while the return stroke goes idle and no metal is removed
during this period.
 The shaper mechanism is so designed that it moves the ram
holding the tool at a comparatively slower speed during forward
cutting stroke, whereas during the return stroke it allow the ram
to move at a faster speed to reduce the idle return time. This
mechanism is known as quick return mechanism.
 The reciprocating movement of the ram and the quick return
mechanism of the machine are generally obtained by anyone of
the following methods:
(1) Crank and slotted link mechanism
(2) Whitworth quick return mechanism, and
(2) Hydraulic shaper mechanism
Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism
 Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism
 Since useful work is done only during the forward stroke of ram, the
mechanism driving the ram is so designed that the return stroke is
completed in much less time than the forward stroke.
 The crank AB (of adjustable length R) rotates with a uniform angular
speed.
 The crank pin B is in the shape of a die block which is free to slide inside
the slot in the slotted lever OBC.
 This slotted lever is pivoted at O and the other end C is connected to the
ram by a short link arm.
 When the crank AB rotates clockwise from position AB1 to AB2, the ram
moves forward from left to right and when it rotates from position AB2
to AB1 the ram returns back to its original position.
 Clearly the time taken to complete forward stroke is proportional to
angle α and the return stroke is completed in less time which is
proportional to angle β.
Planers
Planers are intended for machining large-size WPs because of their capacity for
long table travel (1–15 m) and robust construction.

They are used to machine plane surfaces that may be horizontal, vertical, or at
an angle. Angular surfaces are often easier to machine on planers.

Some of the work formerly done on planers is done now on planer-type milling
machines using large face milling cutters.

However, it is found that milling cutters tend to be glazed and the machined
component is work-hardened and hence becomes difficult to be hand-scraped.

Therefore, plane surfaces that required hand-scraping are preferably machined

on planers.
 Planers
 Like a shaper, planer is used primarily to produce horizontal,
vertical or inclined flat surfaces by a single point cutting tool. But
it is used for machining large and heavy workpieces that cannot be
accommodated on the table of a shaper.
 In addition to machining large work, the planer is frequently used
to machine multiple small parts held in line on the platen.
 Planer is mainly of two kinds namely open housing planer and
double housing planer.
 The bigger job is fixed with help of the grooves on the base of the
planer and is accurately guided as it travels back and forth.
 Cutting tools are held in tool heads of double housing planer and
the work piece is clamped onto the worktable.
 The worktable rides on the gin tool heads that can travel from side
to side i.e., in a direction at right angle to the direction of motion
of the worktable.
 Planers
 Tool heads are mounted on a horizontal cross rail that can be moved
up and down.
 Cutting is achieved by applying the linear primary motion to the
workpiece (motion X) and feeding the tool at right angles to this
motion (motionY and Z).
 The primary motion of the worktable is normally accomplished by a
rack and pinion drive using a variable speed motor.
 As with the shaper, the tool posts are mounted on clapper boxes to
prevent interference between the tools and work-piece on the return
stroke and the feed motion is intermittent.
 The size of a standard planer is specified by the size of the largest solid
that can reciprocate under the tool.
 In addition to this, some other parameters such as table size (length
and width), type of drive, number of speeds and feeds available, power
input, weight of the machine, floor space required etc. may be
required to specify a planer completely.
Slotters
 Slotters are commonly used for internal machining of blind holes, or
vertical machining of complicated shapes that are difficult to machine on
horizontal shapers.
 Useful for machining keyways, and cutting of internal and external teeth
on large gears.
 The job is generally supported on a round table (3) that has a rotary feed
in addition to the usual table movement in cross-directions.
 The ram (1) travels vertically along the ways of the column (2). The ram
stroke of a slotter ranges from 300 to 1800 mm.
 The slotters are generally very robust machines and there is a possibility of
tilting the ram up to ±15° from vertical to permit machining of dies with
relief.
 The rams are either crank-driven or hydraulically driven. Ram speeds are
usually from 2 to 40 m/min.
 Longitudinal and transverse feeds range from 0.05 to 2.5 mm/stroke.
Cutting action takes place on downward stroke.
Bed or Base
 It is made up of cast iron. It supports column, tables, ram, driving
mechanism etc.
 The top of the bed carries horizontal ways along which the worktable
can traverse.
Table
 It holds the work piece and is adjustable in longitudinal and cross-wise
directions.The table can be rotated about its centre.
Hand wheels
 They are provided for rotating the table and for longitudinal and cross
traverse.
Column is the vertical member
 They are made up of cast iron and it houses the driving mechanism.
 The vertical front face of the column is accurately finished for
providing ways along which the ram moves up and down.
Ram
 It is provided to reciprocate vertically up and down. At its
bottom, it carries the cutting tool.
 It is similar to the ram of a shaper; but it is more massive and
moves vertically, at right angle to the worktable, instead of
having the horizontal motion of a shaper:
Cross-slide
 It can be moved parallel to the face of the column.
 The circular work-table is mounted on the top of the cross-
slide.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
 Relatively large and odd shaped blanks are generally directly
clamped on the bed with the help of clamps, supports, and T-
bolts being fitted in the T-slots in the bed. Some odd shaped
jobs are often clamped on the side surfaces of the bed.
 Blanks of small size and geometric shape are gripped in a vice
which is firmly clamped on the bed. For locating and
supporting the blank in the vice parallel blocks and Vee-
blocks are used.
 In case of batch or small lot production, the blank is mounted
in the fixture designed and used for that purpose. The fixture
remains rigidly clamped on the bed.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
 Shaper Vise
 Vise is the most common and simple work holding device
used in a shaper.
 Different types of vises are used in a shaping machine
according to the need and they are Plain vise, Swivel vise and
Universal vise.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
 Clamps and Stop Pins
 T – bolts are fitted into the T – slots of the table. The work is
placed on the table The work is supported by a rectangular
strip at one end and by a stop pin at the other side.
 The screw is tightened to secure the work properly on the
machine table.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
 T-bolts, Clamp and Step Blocks
 The step blocks are used in combination with T-bolts and clamps to hold the
work directly on the machine table. T-bolts are fitted in the T-slots of the
machine table.
 One side of the clamp holds the work and the other side rests on a step of the
step block.
 The different steps of the block are useful in levelling the clamp when holding
works of different heights.
 A nut on the top of the clamp holds the work rigidly.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
 Angle Plate
 Angle plate resembles the English alphabet ‘L’. It is accurately
machined to have two sides at right angles.
 Slots are provided on both the sides.
 One of the sides is bolted to the machine table and the
workpieces are held on the other side.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
V – block
 V – block is a metal block having a ‘V’ shaped groove on it. It
is used for holding cylindrical workpieces.
 Operations like keyway cutting, slot cutting and machining
flat surfaces can be performed on the cylindrical workpieces
held on a ‘V’ block.
 Work Holding Devices in Shaper
 Shaper Centres
 This is a special attachment used for cutting equally spaced
grooves or splines on the periphery of a round work.
Work Holding Devices of a Planing Machine
The work may be held on a planing machine table by the following methods:
 By Standard Clamping
 By Special Fixtures
Standard Clamping Devices: The standard clamping devices are used for holding most
of the work on a planner table. The devices are as follows:
 Heavy Duty Vises
 T-Bolts and Clamps
 Stepblocks, Clamps and T-Bolts
 Poppets or Stop pins and Toe dogs
 Angle plates
 Planer jacks
 Planer centres
 Stops
 V-Blocks
Work Holding Devices of a Planing Machine
Work Holding Devices of a Planing Machine
Special Fixtures
 Special fixtures are used for holding a large identical pieces of
work on a planer table. Fixtures are specially designed for
holding a particular type of a work.
 By using a fixture the setting time may be reduced
considerably.
Work Holding Devices of a Slotting Machine
 The work is held on a slotter table by a vise, T-bolts and
clamps or by special fixtures.
 T-bolts and clamps are used for holding most of the work on
the table.
 Fixtures are used for holding repetitive work.
 Work Holding Devices of Milling Machines
 Tool Maker Universal Vise
 The universal vise can be swivelled in a horizontal plane
similar to a swivel vise and can also be tilted in any vertical
position for angular cuts.
 The rise not being rigid in construction is used mainly in tool
room work.
Work Holding Devices of Milling Machines
 Plain Vise
 Either a plain or swivel-type vise is furnished with each
milling machine.
 The plain vise, similar to the machine table vise, is used for
milling straight workplaces and is bolted to the milling
machine table either at right angles or parallel to the machine
arbor.
Swivel Base Vise
Work Holding Devices of Milling Machines
 V-Block
 V-Blocks are precision metalworking jigs typically used to hold round metal
rods or pipes for performing drilling or milling operations.
 They consist of a rectangular steel or cast iron block with a 90-degree channel
rotated 45-degrees from the sides, forming aV-shaped channel in the top.
 A small groove is cut in the bottom of the "V". They often come with screw
clamps to hold the work.
 There are also versions with internal magnets for magnetic work holding. V-
blocks are usually sold in pairs.
Work Holding Devices of Milling Machines
Dividing Head
 An indexing head, also known as a dividing head or spiral head, is a specialised
tool that allows a workpiece to be circularly indexed; that is, easily and precisely
rotated to preset angles or circular divisions.
 Indexing heads are usually used on the tables of milling machines, but may be
used on many other machine tools including drill presses, grinders, and boring
machines. Common jobs for a dividing head include machining the flutes of a
milling cutter, cutting the teeth of a gear, milling curved slots, or drilling a bolt
hole circle around the circumference of a part.
Work Holding Devices of Milling Machines
 Rotary Table
 A rotary table is a precision work positioning device used in metalworking.
 It enables the operator to drill or cut work at exact intervals around a fixed
(usually horizontal or vertical) axis.
 Some rotary tables allow the use of index plates for indexing operations, and
some can also be fitted with dividing plates that enable regular work positioning
at divisions for which indexing plates are not available.
 A rotary fixture used in this fashion is more appropriately called a dividing head
(indexing head).
 Tool Holding Devices in Shaper
 Machining is done in shaping machines only by single point
tools, even if it is m tool. And only one tool is used at a time.
 Shank type tool is mounted
 either directly in the clapper box
 or in a tool holder which is fitted in the clapper box
 Tool Holding Devices in Planner
 In planning machine also, only single point cutting tools are
used but usually more than one tool is used simultaneously
from different planes and angles.
 Tool Holding Devices in Slotting Machine
The method of mounting the single point cutting tool is shown
in fig below.
 Tool Holding Devices in Milling Machine
 Milling cutters are rotary tools of various sizes, configurations and
materials. The general methods of mounting cutting tools in
general purpose milling machines are
 Plain or slab milling cutters and disc type profile sharpened or form relieved
cutters (having central bore) are mounted on horizontal milling arbour.
 End milling cutters with straight shank are mounted coaxially in the spindle
– bore with the help of collet – chuck.
 Shell milling cutters and heavy face milling cutters are mounted in the
hollow spindle with the help of a short but rugged arbour, a fastening screw
and a draw bar.
 In case of carbide tipped milling cutters, the uncoated or coated carbide
inserts of desired size, shape and number are mechanically clamped at the
periphery of the plain and disc type milling cutters, large end milling cutters
and face milling cutters. End mills of very small diameter are provided with
one or two carbide inserts clamped at the tool – end.
Tool Holding Devices in Milling Machine

Mounting of cutting tools on milling arbours.

Mounting of straight shank end milling cutters in spindle by collet.

 Tool Holding Devices in Milling Machine

Mounting shell and

Carbide tips clamped in milling cutter
face milling cutters in
milling machine
spindle
 Boring Operations
 Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against
a rotating workpart.
 The difference is that boring is performed on the inside
diameter of an existing hole rather than the outside diameter
of an existing cylinder. In effect, boring is an internal
turning operation.
 Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called
boring machines (also boring mills).
 Boring mills can be horizontal or vertical. The
designation refers to the orientation of the axis of rotation of
the machine spindle or workpart.
 Horizontal Boring Operation
 In a horizontal boring operation, the setup can be arranged in either
of two ways.
 The first setup is one in which the work is fixtured to a rotating
spindle, and the tool is attached to a cantilevered boring bar that
feeds into the work.
 The boring bar in this setup must be very stiff to avoid deflection
and vibration during cutting. To achieve high stiffness, boring bars
are often made of cemented carbide, whose modulus of elasticity
approaches 620 x 103 MPa.
 The second possible setup is one in which the tool is mounted to a
boring bar, and the boring bar is supported and rotated between
centers.
 The work is fastened to a feeding mechanism that feeds it past the
tool. This setup, can be used to perform a boring operation on a
conventional engine lathe.
 Vertical Boring Machine (VBM)
 A vertical boring machine (VBM) is used for large, heavy workparts with large
diameters; usually the workpart diameter is greater than its length.
 The part is clamped to a worktable that rotates relative to the machine base.
Worktables up to 40 ft in diameter are available.
 The typical boring machine can position and feed several cutting tools
simultaneously.
 The tools are mounted on tool heads that can be fed horizontally and vertically
relative to the worktable.
 One or two heads are mounted on a horizontal cross-rail assembled to the
machine tool housing above the worktable.
 The cutting tools mounted above the work· can be used for facing and boring.
In addition to the tools on the cross-rail, one or two additional tool heads can
be mounted on the ·side columns of the housing to enable turning on the
outside diameter of the work.
Vertical Boring Machine (VBM)
a. Single-point cutter mechanically secured to a boring bar. When the tool becomes
worn, it is removed for sharpening and reset again. Resetting sharpened tools is
tedious and requires a fair degree of skill.

b. Adjustable single-point cutter is advanced for wear compensation.

c. Boring tools are clamped in a universal boring head that is attached to the end of
the boring bar. The head is designed to accommodate a variety of tool
configurations.

d. A fixed cutter, held by a stub boring bar, is simple and widely used.

e. A blade-type boring tool, where the cutter is inserted through the body, thus
providing two cutting edges that enable a substantially higher increase of feed rate
than that is possible when only one cutting edge is used.
Jig Boring Machines

Jig borers are extra-precise vertical boring machines intended for precise boring,
centering, drilling, reaming, counterboring, facing, spot facing, and so on in addition
to lay out work.

They are mainly designed for use in tool making, jigs and fi xtures, and machining
of other precisions parts.

The jig boring machines are rigid enough to perform heavy cuts and sensitive
enough for précising.

They are equipped with special devices ensuring accurate positioning of the
machine operative units including a precision lead screw-and-nut and are
supplemented by vernier dials and precision scales in combination with optical
read-out devices, inductive transducers, and also optical and electrical measuring
devices.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BROACHINING
 Broaching is a machining process for removal of a layer of material of
desired width and depth usually in one stroke by a slender rod or bar
type cutter having a series of cutting edges with gradually increased
protrusion.
 In shaping, attaining full depth requires a number of strokes to
remove the material in thin layers step – by – step by gradually in
feeding the single point tool.
 Whereas, broaching enables remove the whole material in one stroke
only by the gradually rising teeth of the cutter called broach.
 The amount of tooth rise between the successive teeth of the broach
is equivalent to the infeed given in shaping.
 Machining by broaching is preferably used for making
straight through holes of various forms and sizes of section,
internal and external through straight or helical slots or
grooves, external surfaces of different shapes, teeth of
external and internal splines and small spur gears etc.
 TYPES OF BROACHING MACHINES
According to purpose of use
 general purpose
 single purpose
 special purpose
According to nature of work
 internal broaching
 external (surface) broaching
According to configuration
 horizontal
 vertical
According to number of slides or
stations
 single station type
 multiple station type
 indexing type
According to tool / work motion
 intermittent (one job at a time)
type
 continuous type
 Internal broaching and broaches
 Internal broaching tools are used to enlarge and finish various
contours in through holes preformed by casting, forging, rolling,
drilling, punching etc.
 Internal broaching tools are mostly pull type but may be push
type also for lighter work.
 Pull type internal broaching tools are generally provided with a set
of roughing teeth followed by few semi-finishing teeth and then
some finishing teeth which may also include a few burnishing teeth
at the end.
 The wide range of internal broaching tools and their applications
include;
 through holes of different form and dimensions
 non-circular holes and internal slots
 internal keyway and splines
 teeth of straight and helical fluted internal spur gears
Internal broaching – tools and applications
 External broaching
 External surface broaching competes with milling, shaping
and planing and, wherever feasible, outperforms those
processes in respect of productivity and product quality.
 External broaching tools may be both pull and push type.
 Major applications of external broaching are :
 un-obstructed outside surfacing; flat, peripheral and contour
surfaces
 grooves, slots, keyways etc. on through outer surfaces of objects
 external splines of different forms
 teeth of external spur gears or gear sectors
Typical external broaching
 Tool nomenclature of broaching tool
 Both pull and push type broaches are made in the form of
slender rods or bars of varying section having along its length
one or more rows of cutting teeth with increasing height
(and width occasionally).
 Push type broaches are subjected to compressive load and
hence are made shorter in length to avoid buckling.
 The general configuration of pull type broaches, which are
widely used for enlarging and finishing preformed holes, is
schematically shown in Fig
 Tool nomenclature of broaching tool
The essential elements of the broach are :
 Pull end for engaging the broach in the machine
 Neck of shorter diameter and length, where the broach is allowed to fail, if at
all, under overloading
 Front pilot for initial locating the broach in the hole
 Roughing and finishing teeth for metal removal
 Finishing and burnishing teeth
 Rear pilot and follower rest or retriever
 Tool nomenclature of broaching tool
 The rake (hook) angle depends on the material cut (as it does in turning and
other cutting operations) and usually ranges from 0° to 20°.
 The clearance angle is typically 1° to 4°; finishing teeth have smaller angles.
 Too small a clearance angle causes rubbing of the teeth against the broached
surface.
 The pitch of the teeth depends on factors such as the length of the workpiece
(length of cut), tooth strength, and size and shape of chips.
 The tooth depth and pitch must be sufficiently large to accommodate the chips
produced during broaching, particularly for long workpieces.
 At least two teeth should be in contact with the workpiece at all times.
 Tool nomenclature of broaching tool
 Broaches are designed mostly pull type to facilitate alignment
and avoid buckling.
 The length of the broach is governed by;
 Type of the broach; pull or push type
 Number of cutting edges and their pitch depending upon the
work material and maximum thickness of the material layer to
be removed
 Nature and extent of finish required.
 Tool nomenclature of broaching tool
 Broaches are available with various tooth profiles, including some with chip
breakers.
 The variety of surface broaches include slab (for cutting flat surfaces), slot,
contour; dovetail, pot (for precision external shapes), and straddle.
 Internal broach types include hole (for close-tolerance holes, round shapes, and
other shapes;), keyway, internal gear, and rifling (for gun barrels).
 Irregular internal shapes usually are broached by starting with a round hole
drilled or bored in the workpiece.

Chip breaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach.
 Grinding
 Grinding is the most common form of abrasive machining. It
is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive tool
whose cutting elements are grains of abrasive material known
as grit.
 These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points, high
hot hardness, chemical stability and wear resistance.
 The grits are held together by a suitable bonding material to
give shape of an abrasive tool.
 Grinding Machines
 Grinding Machines are also regarded as machine tools. A
distinguishing feature of grinding machines is the rotating
abrasive tool.
 Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy along
with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece.
 However, advent of new generation of grinding wheels and
grinding machines, characterized by their rigidity, power and
speed enables one to go for high efficiency deep grinding
(often called as abrasive milling) of not only hardened
material but also ductile materials.
 Difference between grinding and milling
 The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller and more
numerous than the teeth on a milling cutter.
 Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.
 The abrasive grits in a grinding wheel are randomly
oriented.
 A grinding wheel is self-sharpening.
Particles on becoming dull either fracture to create new
cutting edges or are pulled out of the surface of the wheel to
expose new grains.
 Types of Grinding machines
Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as
(a) Surface grinding machine
• Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table
• Vertical spindle and reciprocating table
• Horizontal spindle and rotary table
• Vertical spindle and rotary table
(b) Cylindrical grinding machine
1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder
3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
(c) Internal grinding machine
1. Chucking type internal grinder
2. Planetary internal grinder
3. Centreless internal grinder
(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine
 Surface grinding machine
 This machine may be similar to a milling machine used
mainly to grind flat surface.
 However, some types of surface grinders are also capable of
producing contour surface with formed grinding wheel.
Surface grinding machine
 Cylindrical grinding machine

 This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface.

The surfaces may be straight, tapered, steps or profiled.
 Broadly there are three different types of cylindrical grinding
machine as follows:
1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder
3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
 Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
 The machine is similar to a centre lathe in many respects.
 The workpiece is held between head stock and tailstock
centres.
 A disc type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with
its peripheral surface.
 Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in this
machine
 Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
 This grinding machine is a production machine in which out side
diameter of the workpiece is ground.
 The workpiece is not held between centres but by a work support
blade.
 It is rotated by means of a regulating wheel and ground by the
grinding wheel.
 In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel
revolving at a much lower surface speed than grinding wheel
controls the rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece.
 The regulating wheel is kept slightly inclined to the axis of the
grinding wheel and the workpiece is fed longitudinally.
 The grinding wheel or the regulating wheel or both require to be
correctly profiled to get the required taper on the workpiece.
Centreless cylindrical surface grinder
 Centreless internal grinder
 This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered
holes in cylindrical parts (e.g. cylindrical liners, various
bushings etc).
 The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll, pressure
roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding
wheel.
 Grinding wheels
 Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits,
which perform the cutting or material removal, held in the
weak bonding matrix.
 A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type of the
abrasive material used.
 The conventional wheels include aluminium oxide and
silicon carbide wheels while diamond and cBN (cubic boron
nitride) wheels fall in the category of superabrasive
wheel.
 Specification of grinding wheel
 A grinding wheel requires two types of specification
(a) Geometrical specification
(b) Compositional specification
 Geometrical specification of grinding wheel

 This is decided by the type of grinding machine and the

grinding operation to be performed in the workpiece.
 This specification mainly includes wheel diameter, width and
depth of rim and the bore diameter.
 The wheel diameter, for example can be as high as 400mm in
high efficiency grinding or as small as less than 1mm in
internal grinding.
 Similarly, width of the wheel may be less than an mm in
dicing and slicing applications.
Standard wheel configuration for
conventional grinding wheels
Standard wheel configuration for
superabrasive wheel
 Marking system for conventional grinding
wheel
Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional
specification. Conventional abrasive grinding wheels are specified
encompassing the following parameters.
1) the type of grit material
2) the grit size
3) the bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel
hardness
4) the structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount
of inter grit spacing
5) the type of bond material
6) other than these parameters, the wheel manufacturer may add
their own identification code prefixing or suffixing (or both) the
standard code.
 Example: 51 A 60 K 5 V 05
 The number ‘51’ is manufacturer’s identification number indicating exact kind of
abrasive used.
 The letter ‘A’ denotes that the type of abrasive is aluminium oxide. In case of silicon
carbide the letter ‘C’ is used.
 The number ‘60’ specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a very large size grit
this number may be as small as 6 where as for a very fine grit the designated number
may be as high as 600.
 The letter ‘K’ denotes the hardness of the wheel, which means the amount of force
required to pull out a single bonded abrasive grit by bond fracture. The letter symbol
can range between ‘A’ and ‘Z’, ‘A’ denoting the softest grade and ‘Z’ denoting the
hardest one.
 The number ‘5’ denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This number can
assume any value between 1 to 20, ‘1’ indicating high porosity and ‘20’ indicating low
porosity.
 The letter code ‘V’ means that the bond material used is vitrified. The codes for other
bond materials used in conventional abrasive wheels are B (resinoid), BF (resinoid
reinforced), E(shellac), O(oxychloride), R(rubber), RF (rubber reinforced), S(silicate)
 The number ‘05’ is a wheel manufacturer’s identifier.
 Marking system for superabrasive grinding wheel
 Example: R D 120 N 100 M 4
 The letter ‘R’ is manufacture’s code indicating the exact type of superabrasive used.
 The letter ‘D’ denotes that the type of abrasive is diamond. In case of cBN the letter ‘B’ is
used.
 The number ‘120’ specifies the average grain size in inch mesh. However, a two number
designation (e.g. 120/140) is utilized for controlling the size of superabrasive grit. The two
number designation of grit size along with corresponding designation in micron is given in
table 28.1. `
 Like conventional abrasive wheel, the letter ‘N’ denotes the hardness of the wheel. However,
resin and metal bonded wheels are produced with almost no porosity and effective grade of
the wheel is obtained by modifying the bond formulation.
 The number ‘100’ is known as concentration number indicating the amount of abrasive
contained in the wheel. The number ‘100’ corresponds to an abrasive content of 4.4
carats/cm3. For diamond grit, ‘100’ concentration is 25% by volume. For cBN the
corresponding volumetric concentration is 24%.
 The letter ‘M’ denotes that the type of bond is metallic. The other types of bonds used in
superabrasive wheels are resin, vitrified or metal bond, which make a composite structure
with the grit material. However, another type of superabrasive wheel with both diamond and
cBN is also manufactured where a single layer of superabrasive grits are bonded on a metal
perform by a galvanic metal layer or a brazed metal layer.
 Types of abrasive bonds
 Vitrified bond
 Resin bond
 Shellac bond
 Oxychloride bond
 Rubber bond
 Metal bond
 Electroplated bond
 Brazed bond
Vitrified bond
 Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition. It
can also be safely used in wet grinding.
 It can not be used where mechanical impact or thermal variations are like
to occur.
 This bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding because of
possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
 Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty
grinding because of their ability to withstand shock load.
Resin bond
 This bond is also known for its vibration absorbing characteristics and finds
its use with diamond and cBN in grinding of cemented carbide and steel
respectively.
 Resin bond is not recommended with alkaline grinding fluid for a possible
chemical attack leading to bond weakening.
 Fiberglass reinforced resin bond is used with cut off wheels which requires
added strength under high speed operation.
Shellac bond
 At one time this bond was used for flexible cut off wheels.
 At present use of shellac bond is limited to grinding wheels
engaged in fine finish of rolls.
Oxychloride bond
 It is less common type bond, but still can be used in disc
grinding operation. It is used under dry condition.
Rubber bond
 Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off operation.
 Rubber bond was once popular for finish grinding on
bearings and cutting tools.
Metal bond
 Metal bond is extensively used with superabrasive wheels.
 Extremely high toughness of metal bonded wheels makes these very effective in those
applications where form accuracy as well as large stock removal is desired.
Electroplated bond
 This bond allows large (30-40%) crystal exposure above the bond without need of
any truing or dressing.
 This bond is specially used for making small diameter wheel, form wheel and thin
superabrasive wheels.
 Presently it is the only bond for making wheels for abrasive milling and ultra high
speed grinding.
Brazed bond
 This is relatively a recent development, allows crystal exposure as high 60-80%. In
addition grit spacing can be precisely controlled.
 This bond is particularly suitable for very high material removal either with diamond
or cBN wheel.
 The bond strength is much greater than provided by electroplated bond.
 This bond is expected to replace electroplated bond in many applications.
 Truing
 Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on
the grinding wheel, whether the geometry is a special form
or flat profile. Therefore, truing produces the macro-
geometry of the grinding wheel.
 Truing is also required on a new conventional wheel to
ensure concentricity with specific mounting system.
 In practice the effective macro-geometry of a grinding wheel
is of vital importance and accuracy of the finished workpiece
is directly related to effective wheel geometry.
 Dressing
 Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures
that grit cutting edges are exposed from the bond and thus able to
penetrate into the workpiece material.
 Also, in dressing attempts are made to splinter the abrasive grains
to make them sharp and free cutting and also to remove any
residue left by material being ground.
 Dressing therefore produces micro-geometry. The structure of
micro-geometry of grinding wheel determine its cutting ability
with a wheel of given composition.
 Dressing can substantially influence the condition of the grinding
tool.
 Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation
for conventional abrasive grinding wheels, but are usually two
distinctly separate operation for superabrasive wheel.
Dressing and Truing
 Super finishing processes
 To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of
modern machinery, its components require to be
manufactured not only with high dimensional and
geometrical accuracy but also with high surface finish.
 The surface finish has a vital role in influencing functional
characteristics like wear resistance, fatigue strength,
corrosion resistance and power loss due to friction.
 Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning,
milling or even classical grinding can not meet this stringent
requirement.
surface roughness produced by various
processes
 Lapping
 Lapping is regarded as the oldest method of obtaining a fine finish.
 Lapping is basically an abrasive process in which loose abrasives
function as cutting points finding momentary support from the
laps.
 Material removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm
but many reach 0.08 to 0.1mm in certain cases.
 Characteristics of lapping process

 Use of loose abrasive between lap and the workpiece.

 Usually lap and workpiece are not positively driven but are
guided in contact with each other.
 Relative motion between the lap and the work should change
continuously so that path of the abrasive grains of the lap is
not repeated on the workpiece.
Abrasives of lapping:
• Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5~100μm
• Cr2O3, grain size 1~2 μm
• B4C3, grain size 5-60 μm
• Diamond, grain size 0.5~5 V
Vehicle materials for lapping
• Machine oil
• Rape oil
• grease
Technical parameters affecting lapping processes are:
• unit pressure
• the grain size of abrasive
• concentration of abrasive in the vehicle
• lapping speed
 Hand lapping
 Hand lapping of flat surface is carried out by rubbing the
component over accurately finished flat surface of master lap
usually made of a thick soft close-grained cast iron block.
 Abrading action is accomplished by very fine abrasive powder
held in a vehicle.
 Manual lapping requires high personal skill because the
lapping pressure and speed have to be controlled manually.
 Lapping Machine
 Machine lapping is meant for economic lapping of batch
qualities.
 In machine lapping, where high accuracy is demanded, metal
laps and abrasive powder held in suitable vehicles are used.
 Bonded abrasives in the form wheel are chosen for
commercial lapping.
 Machine lapping can also employ abrasive paper or abrasive
cloth as the lapping medium.
 Lapping Machine
 In this case cast iron plate with loose abrasive carried in a
vehicle can be used.
 Alternatively, bonded abrasive plates may also be used.
Centreless roll lapping uses two cast iron rolls, one of which
serves as the lapping roller twice in diameter than the other
one known as the regulating roller.
 During lapping the abrasive compound is applied to the rolls
rotating in the same direction while the workpiece is fed
across the rolls.
 This process is suitable for lapping a single piece at a time and
mostly used for lapping plug gauges, measuring wires and
similar straight or tapered cylindrical parts.
 Buffing
 Buffing is similar to polishing in appearance, but its function is
different. Buffing is used to provide attractive surfaces with high
luster.
 Buffing wheels are made of materials similar to those used for
polishing wheels-leather, felt, cotton, etc.-but buffing wheels are
generally softer.
 The abrasives are very fine and are contained in a buffing
compound that is pressed into the outside surface of the wheel
while it rotates. This contrasts with polishing in which the abrasive
grits are glued to the wheel surface.
 As in polishing, the abrasive particles must be periodically
replenished.
 Buffing is usually done manually, although machines have been
designed to perform the process automatically.
 Speeds are generally 2400-5200 m/min.
 Honing
 Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone carries
out a combined rotary and reciprocating motion while the
workpiece does not perform any working motion.
 Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface, such as
automobile cylindrical walls.
 The honing stones are held against the workpiece with controlled
light pressure.
 The honing head is not guided externally but, instead, floats in the
hole, being guided by the work surface
 Honing tool consists of a set of bonded abrasive sticks. Four sticks
are used on the tool, but the number depends on hole size.
 Two to four sticks would be used for small holes (e.g., gun
barrels), and a dozen or more would be used for larger diameter
holes.
 The motion of the honing tool is a combination of rotation and
linear reciprocation, regulated in such a way that a given point on
the abrasive stick does not trace the same path repeatedly.
 This rather complex motion accounts for the cross-hatched
pattern on the bore surface.
 Honing speeds are 15-150 m/min.
 During the process, the sticks are pressed outward against the hole
surface to produce the desired abrasive cutting action.
 Hone pressures of l-3 MPa are typical, although pressures outside
this range have also been reported.
 The honing tool is supported in the hole by two
universal joints, thus causing the tool to follow the
previously defined hole axis.
 Honing enlarges and finishes the hole but cannot change
its location.
 Grit sizes in honing range between 30 and 600. The same
trade-off between better finish and faster material
removal rates exists in honing as in grinding.
 The amount of material removed from the work surface
during a honing operation may be as much as 0.5 mm (0.020
in), but is usually much less than this.
 A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate
the tool and to help remove the chips.
 Superfinishing
 Superfinishing is an abrasive process similar to honing. Both processes use a bonded
abrasive stick moved with a reciprocating motion and pressed against the surface to
be finished.
 The relative motion between the abrasive stick and the work surface is varied so that
individual grains do not retrace the same path.
 A cutting fluid is used to cool the work surface and wash away chips.
 In addition, the fluid tends to separate the abrasive stick from the work surface after a
certain level of smoothness is achieved, thus preventing further cutting action.
 The result of these operating conditions is mirror-like finishes with surface roughness
values around 0.025 μ,m (1 μ,-in). Superfinishing can be used to finish flat and
external cylindrical surfaces.
 Superfinishing and honing
Superfinishing differs from honing in the following respects
 the strokes are shorter, 5 mm.
 higher frequeneies are used, up to 1500 strokes per minute.
 lower pressures are applied between the tool and the surface,
below 0.28 Mpa.
 workpiece speeds are lower, 15 m/min or less; and
 grit sizes are generally smaller.
 Gear Manufacturing
Manufacturing of gears require special tools and equipment, therefore it is costlier
than other drives.

The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.

It requires suitable lubricant and reliable method of applying it, for the proper
operation of gear drives.

Gear cutting machines are single purpose machines.

Milling machine is a multipurpose machine, which in addition perform other

operations but not fit for mass production.

Commercially produced by other methods like sand casting, die casting, stamping,
extrusion, and powder metallurgy.

 Above processes are used for gears of low wear resistance, low power
transmission, and relatively low accuracy of transmitted motion.

When the application involves higher values for one or more of these
characteristics, cut or machined gears are used.
Gear production by cutting involves two principal methods—forming and
generating processes.

Gear finishing involves four operations—shaving, grinding, lapping, and burnishing

Based on Syllabus highlighted process should be concentrated

 Powder Metallurgy (Sintering)

1. Formation of metallic powders.

2. Mixing or blending of the metallic powders in required proportions.
3. Compressing & compacting the powders into desired shapes & sizes of gear
4. Sintering the compacted articles in a controlled furnace atmosphere.
5. Subjecting the sintered articles to secondary processing if needed so.
 Formation of Metal Powders
In the majority of powders, the size of the particle varies from microns to 0.5 mm.

The most common particle size of powders falls into a range of 10 to 40 microns.

The chemical and physical properties of metals depend upon the size and shape of
the powder particles.

The commonly used powder making processes are given as under.

1. Atomization
2. Chemical reduction
3. Electrolytic process
4. Crushing
5. Milling
6. Condensation of metal vapors
7. Hydride and carbonyl processes.
 Mixing or Blending of Metallic Powders
After the formation of metallic powders, proper mixing or blending of powders is
the first step in the forming of powder metal parts.

The mixing is being carried out either wet or dry using an efficient mixer to
produce a homogeneous mixture.
Compacting of Powder
Compacting is the technique of converting loose powder in to compact accurately
defined shape and size of a gear.

The die consists of a cavity of the shape of the desired part.

Metal powder is poured in the die cavity (gear) and pressure is applied using
punches, which usually work from the top and bottom of the die.
 Sintering
The metal parts obtained after compacting are not strong and dense.

To improve these properties, the parts should be sintered.

Sintering is the process of heating of compacted products in a furnace to below

the melting point of at least one of the major constituents under a controlled
atmosphere.
 Secondary Operations
Some powder metal parts may be used in the sintered condition while in some other
cases additional secondary operations have to be performed to get the desired
surface finish, close tolerance etc..

1. Annealing.
2. Repressing for greater density or closer dimensional control.
3. Machining.
4. Polishing.
5. Rolling, forging or drawing.
6. Surface treatments to protect against corrosion.
7. In some cases infiltration is needed to provide increased strength, hardness,
density obtainable by straight sintering.
Process chart for P/M gear manufacture

Characteristics:

Accuracy similar to die-cast gears

Material properties can be Tailor

made

Typically suited for small sized gears

Economical for large lot size only

Gears manufactured by P/M technique, secondary machining is not required.

Gears manufactured will be very small but high accurate.

Automotive engine components manufactured by sintering
 Extruding
Extruding is used to form teeth on long rods, which are then cut into usable
lengths and machined for bores and keyways etc.

Nonferrous materials such as aluminum and copper alloys are commonly

extruded rather than steels.

This result in good surface finishes with clean edges and pore free dense
structure with higher strength.

Materials:
Aluminum, copper, naval brass, architect-ural bronze and phosphor bronze are the
materials that are commonly extruded.

Applications:
Splined hollow & solid shafts, sector gears are extruded
Helical gear made by extrusion
 Stamping
Used for mass production of small and thin gears out of metal sheets at a thickness
of 1.5mm to 12.5mm maximum.

Sheet metal can be stamped with tooth shapes to form low precision gears at low
cost in high quantities.

The surface finish and accuracy of these gears are poor.

Applications:

Stamped gears are used as toy gears, hand operated machine gears for slow speed
mechanism.

Precision stamping:
In precision stamping, the dies are made of higher precision with close tolerances
wherein the stamped gears will not have burrs.

Applications:
Clock gears, watch gears etc.
 Machining
The bulk of power transmitting metal gears of machinery are produced by
machining process from cast, forged, or hot rolled blanks.

The initial operations that produce a semi finishing part ready for gear machining
as referred to as blanking operations.

The starting product in gear machining is called a gear blank.

Roughing processes:

Roughing process consists of forming, generation, shaping and hobbing

processes.

By this method gears are made to an accuracy which is more than adequate for
the slow speed operations.

Roughing processes actually produce a smooth and accurate gear tooth.

Only for high precision and quiet running, the secondary finishing operation is
justified at added cost.
Roughing processes include milling the tooth shape with formed cutters or
generating the shape with a rack cutter, a shaping cutter or a hob cutter
which are shown below
 Form Milling
In form milling, the cutter called a form cutter travels axially along the length of
the gear tooth at the appropriate depth to produce the gear tooth.

After each tooth is cut, the cutter is withdrawn, the gear blank is rotated
(indexed), and the cutter proceeds to cut another tooth.

The process continues until all teeth are cut.

Each cutter is designed to cut a range of tooth numbers.

 The precision of the form-cut tooth profile depends on the accuracy of the cutter
and the machine and its stiffness.

Indexing of the gear blank is required to cut all the teeth.

Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the circumference of a gear blank into
equally spaced divisions.

Index fixture consists of an index head (also dividing head, gear cutting
attachment) and footstock, which is similar to the tailstock of a lathe.
The index head and footstock attach to the worktable of the milling machine.

 An index plate containing graduations is used to control the rotation of the index
head spindle.

Gear blanks are held between centers by the index head spindle and footstock.
 Form Milling
Forming is sub-divided into milling by disc cutters and milling by end mill cutter
which are having the shape of tooth space.

The usual practice in gear milling is to mill one tooth space at a time, after which
the blank is indexed to the next cutting position.
Form milling by disc cutter:
The disc cutter shape conforms to the gear tooth space.

Each gear needs a separate cutter.

Tooth is cut one by one by plunging the rotating cutter into the blank as shown
below
Set of cutters for cutting different numbers
of teeth :
 Milling of spur gear using Disc type form
cutter
Steps :
1. Determination of important dimensions.
2. Selection of suitable indexing method to space the gear
teeth accurately.
3. Selection of correct cutter for required number of teeth.
4. Selection of suitable speed, feed and depth of cut.
5. Setting the cutter.
Determination of spur gear dimension :
 Major dimensions like outside diameter.
 Depth of tool is set.
 From the module and no. of teeth on gear , pitch circle
diameter is found.
 “ The standard proportions adopted by the INDIAN
STANDARD SYSTEM for the elements of an involute spur
gear are as following.
 Recommended series : 1, 1.25, 1.50, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10,
12, 16, and 20
 Selection of Cutter , speed , feed and
Depth of cut
 Selection of cutter used for any operation
depends upon module of gear and number of
teeth to be cut.
 If module and no. of teeth are know then cutter is
selected from previous table.
 The speed , feed and depth of cut is chosen based
on machining condition like material to be cut,
material of cutter and condition of machine. (Full
depth of cut - 2.25m)
 Machine setting and cutting of Teeth

 Machine setting involves setting of speed and feed

on machine, mounting of cutter, bolting of
dividing head and tail stock , alignment of cutter
with spindle axis.

 Alignment that center line of cutter touch the

center point of tail stock.
 Milling of helical gear using Disc type
form cutter
Helical gears are made on universal milling machine by use of
helical milling operation.
Steps :
Determination of important dimension.
Selection of indexing.
Determination and setting of table gear train.
Table setting
Set speed, feed and depth of cut.
Gear tooth dimension
Dimension of helical gear in terns of
normal module
 After Dimension calculation , blank of required size is prepared.
 Machine (Universal milling machine) is set by mounting dividing head
and tail stock.
 Blank is mounted on mandrel and support between dividing head and
tail stock.
 Cutter no. is determined and it is mounted on Arbor.
 The table is swivel through helix angle .
 Arrangement for indexing by mounting required indexing plate on
dividing head , set crank pin in required hole circle.
 Feed and speed are selected according to gear material, tool material
and machine condition.
 Begin milling operation.
 Cutter touch the periphery of blank and desired depth of cut given by
using vertical feed screw micrometer.`
 At the end of each cut , table brought back to the initial position.
 Operation is repeated till all the teeth are machined.
Helical milling operation
Form milling by end mill cutter:
The end mill cutter shape conforms to tooth spacing.

Each tooth is cut at a time and then indexed for next tooth space for cutting.

A set of 10 cutters will do for 12 to 120 teeth gears. It is suited for a small volume
production of low precision gears.

 Cutter axis is set radial with respect to gear blank.

To reduce costs, the same cutter is often used for the multiple-sized gears
resulting in profile errors for all but one number of teeth.

Form milling method is the least accurate of all the roughing methods.
 Advantage and Limitations of Gear Milling Process :

Advantage :
 Spur, Helical and bevel gears are cut on commonly available
machines.
 Low tooling cost
 Method is economical for one off type of gear production.
 Tooth that can not be produced by generation can be produced
by this method.
 Both roughing and finishing operation can be carried out.

Limitations :
 Internal teeth can not be produced.
 Pitch accuracy depends on accuracy of Indexing mechanism.
 Processes is slow.
 Mass production not applicable.
Gear Shaping
• The cutter used is provided with cutting edges.
• The tool and gear blank are rotated as they would in actual
meshing.
• Each tooth space on gear is generated by series of incremental
cuts.
• The cutter mounted on spindle provides motion on it’s own
axis and cutting may take place either in upward or downward
stroke of the cutter.
• Two types of gear shaping machines are commonly used base
on shape of the cutter.
1. Machine using Pinion type cutter.
2. Machine using rack type cutter.
 Gear Shaping using pinion type Cutters
 The cutting cycle is commenced after the cutter is fed radically
into the gear blank Equal to the depth of tooth required.
 The cutter is then given reciprocating cutting motion parallel to
its axis and the cutter & the blank are made to rotate slowly
about their axis at speeds which are equal at the matching pitch
surfaces.
In short,
Combined rotating & reciprocating cutter
Axes are parallel
Relative motion is achieved by train of gears
Cutting: either at upstroke or at down stroke
Internal or external gears can be obtained
High dimensional accuracy, low cost
 Gear Shaping using rack type cutter
 The rack cutter generating process is also called gear shaping or rack
planning process. In this method, the generating cutter has the form
of a basic rack for a gear to be generated.
 The cutting action is similar to a shaping machine. The cutter
reciprocates rapidly & removes metal only during the cutting stroke.
 The blank is rotated slowly but uniformly about its axis and between
each cutting stroke of the cutter, the cutter advances along its length
at a speed Equal to the rolling speed of the matching pitch lines.
 When the cutter & the blank have rolled a distance Equal to one
pitch of the blank, the motion of the blank is arrested, the cutter is
with drawn from the blank to give relief to the cutting Edges & the
cutter is returned to its starting position. The blank is next indexed &
the next cut is started following the same procedure.
 Advantage and Limitations of Gear Shaping
ADVANTAGES :
One cutter is used to produce all gears of same module.
Profile of tooth is more accurate.
The rate of production is faster.
The method is versatile and used for producing all types of
gears.
LIMITATIONS :
Cutting takes place only during one stroke. Therefore
process is slower than hobbing.
Special helical guides are required for cutting helical
gears.
 GEAR HOBBING
 Hobbing process is carried out on gear hobbing machine using
hob as tool.
 Hob is a cylinder on the surface of which a continuous thread has
been cut having the cross section of involutes gear teeth. Length
wise gashes or flutes are cut across the spiral to form cutting
edges
 Hobs are generally made of High speed steel or Cemented carbide. Hob
are also used with carbide tipped teeth.
 A hob may have one, two or more starts. A single start hob Cuts a gear
having T teeth so that in the time in which gear blank makes one rotation,
Hob makes T rotation.
 Similarly double start hob makes T/2 rotation and triple start hob makes
T/3 rotation for each rotation of gear blank.
 So multi start hob cut faster than single start hob
 Hobbing machines
1. Horizontal work spindle
2. Vertical work spindle
 Machine with vertical work spindle are more popular but it is not suitable
for shaft work or Long work-piece.
 The rotating hob is given longitudinal feed parallel to gear axis.
 Single pass up to 8 mm module.
 In two passes 1st remove 60 % material and module more than 8.
Hob setting for Spur and Helical Gear
 Feed directions in Hobbing
 The direction of feed during hobbing operation depends,
upon the type of gear to be cut.
 Following directions are commonly used in gear cutting.
1. Axial feeding
2. Radial Feeding
3. Tangential feeding
4. Combined radial and axial feeding
5. Diagonal Feeding
1. Axial Feeding :
• The gear blank is first brought radially towards the hob to
get desired depth of the tooth to be cut.
• The blank movement is then stopped and the hob is given
an axial feeding motion along the face of blank to complete
the gear.

2. Radial Feeding :
• In radial feeding the hob is feed radially towards the center
of the blank.
• The feeding stops when the full depth of cut is reached.
• This type of feeding is used for cutting worm wheel having
helix angle less than 6-7 degrees.
• Disadvantage of this type of feeding is that small portion of
hob involve in cutting at given time and thus, hob wear is
non uniform and may affect the accuracy of profile.
3. Tangential Feeding :
 In this method the hob is first set to the full depth of cut
and then fed in a direction tangential to gear blank.

4. Combined Axial and Radial Feeding :

 This type of feeding become necessary when enough space
is not available for providing axial feeding .

5. Diagonal Feeding :
 Diagonal Feeding is combination of radial and tangential
feeding and it gives excellent rolling characteristics.
 In this feeding wear of hob is uniform along the length of
hob, resulting in longer hob life.
 Advantage and Limitations of Gear Hobbing

Advantage:
 Higher rate of production.
 The method is versatile and used for producing variety of jobs.
 Teeth produced with more accurate profile.
 Same cutter is used to cut gears having same module.
 Process is also suitable for non-metallic materials.

Limitations:
 Gear hobbing cannot be used for producing internal gears without
use of special tooling.
 Hobbing cannot be used for cutting Herringbone gears
END OF UNIT 4

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