Lecture 2

Network Models
Network Model
 A network is a combination of h/w and s/w that sends data
from one location to another.
 Hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries
signals from one point to another.
 Software consists of instruction set that make possible the
services that we expect from a network.
 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
Tasks involved in sending a letter
 Layered Task
Sender Side Receiver Side
 Higher layer. The sender writes  Lower layer. The carrier
the letter, inserts the letter in an transports the letter to the post
envelope, writes the sender and office.
receiver addresses, and drops the
 Middle layer. The letter is
letter in a mailbox.
sorted and delivered to the
 Middle layer. The letter is recipient's mailbox.
picked up by a letter carrier and
 Higher layer. The receiver
delivered to the post office.
picks up the letter, opens the
 Lower layer. The letter is sorted envelope, and reads it.
at the post office; a carrier
transports the letter.
Services
 Every layer use services of the layer below it.
 Sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle
layer.
 Middle layer uses the services of the lower layer.
 The lower layer uses the services of the carrier.
THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
OSI Model
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software.
 The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of
network systems that allows communication between all
types of computer systems.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Physical layer
Physical Layer
 coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream
over a physical medium
 Deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of
the transmission medium.
Physical Layer

 Representation of bits (type of encoding)

 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits(clocks must be synchronized)
 Line configuration(P2P, multipoint)
 Physical topology
 Transmission mode(simplex, duplex)
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Data link Layer
 Transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link.
 makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer
 Framing (divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames)
 Physical addressing (adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for
a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is
the address of the device that connects the network to the next
one.)
Data link layer
Data Link Layer

 Flow control (if receivers receiving rate is low than the

sending rate)
 Error control (Trailer is added for: Error Detection;
Retransmit damaged or lost frames; recognize duplicate
frames)
 Access control (Medium access, if multiple devices
connected to same link, DLL decides which device has
control over link)
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Hop-to-hop delivery
 Network Layer

 responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,

possibly across multiple networks (links)
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no
need for a network layer.
 accomplish source-to-destination delivery
 Logical addressing (of sender and receiver, packets passes
network boundary)
 Routing, to route the packets to their final destination
Network layer
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
Transport Layer

 process-to-process delivery of the entire message

 A process is an application program running on a host
 ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in
order(whereas network layer treats packets
independently), overseeing both error control and flow
control at the source-to-destination level
 Service-point addressing(port address, delivery to
correct process)
The network layer gets each packet to
the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
Transport layer
Transport Layer
 Segmentation and reassembly (message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost
in transmission.)
 Connection control (Connectionless/connection oriented)
 Flow control (performed end to end rather than across a
single link)
 Error control (error control at this layer is performed
process-to process rather than across a single link; Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.)
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer
 Network dialog controller
 Establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.
 Dialog control:
 allows 2 systems to enter in dialog.
 Allows communication between 2 processes in either one way
or 2 way.
 Synchronization:
 Check points
 E.g. if 2000 pages, checkpoint every 100 page, ACK sent, if
error at page 523 only 501 to 523 resent
Presentation layer
 Concerned with syntax(structure or format of data) and
semantics(meaning of each section of bits) of information
 Translation :
 Info in the form of strings numbers etc.
 Information changed to bit stream before transmission
 Different system use different encoding systems, PL is
responsible for interoperability.
 Sender: info from sender dependent format to common format
 Receiver: changes common format to receiver dependant
format
Presentation layer
 Encryption
 Privacy: for sensitive information
 Sender: encryption
 Receiver: decryption
 Compression
 Reduces number of bits
 Important in transmission of multimedia
Application layer
 Enables user to access the network
 Provides user interface and support for services such as e-
mail, remote file access, shared db management etc.
 Provides mail services, directory services file transfer access
etc.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol
suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network,
transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
 IP (internet protocol)
 Unreliable, connectionless, best effort delivery protocol
 ARP (address resolution protocol)
 Associates logical address to a physical address
 RARP (reverse ARP)
 Used to discover internet address when it knows physical address
 ICMP (internet control message protocol)
 Used to send notifications of datagram problem.
 Query and error reporting messages
 IGMP(internet group message protocol)
 Simultaneous transmission of a message to group of recipients
 TCP(transmission control protocol)
 UDP(user datagram protocol)
 SCTP (stream control transmission protocol)
 For newer applications e.g. VOIP
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 (book) a node with physical address 10

sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The
two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).
As the figure shows, the computer with physical address
10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver.
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.