MACHINING

OPERATIONS AND
MACHINE TOOLS
Chapter 22
By: Dr Hamid Ullah Khan Niazi
Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is used
to mechanically cut away material so that the desired part
geometry remains
• Most common application: to shape metal parts
• Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in its capability
to produce a diversity of part geometries and geometric
features with high precision and accuracy
• Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it
lacks the precision and accuracy of machining
 Classification of Machined Parts

• Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

• Nonrotational (also called prismatic) - block-like
or plate-like

Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational,

shown here by block and flat parts.
Machining Operations and Part
Geometry
Each machining operation produces a characteristic part
geometry due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined by
feed trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the
shape of the cutting tool
 Generating Shape

Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning,
(d) plain milling, (e) profile milling.
 Forming to Create Shape

Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching.
 Forming and Generating

Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread

cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling.
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to generate a cylinder
• Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
• Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
• Facing
• Contour turning
• Chamfering
• Threading
Turning

Turning operation.
Turning Operation

Close-up view of a
turning operation on
steel using a titanium
nitride coated carbide
cutting insert
 Facing

Tool is fed
radially inward
 Contour Turning

• Instead of feeding tool

parallel to axis of rotation,
tool follows a contour that
is other than straight, thus
creating a contoured
shape
 Chamfering
• Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of the
cylinder, forming a "chamfer"
 Cutoff

• Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some

location to cut off end of part
 Threading
• Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of
rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at a large
feed rate, thus creating threads
 Engine Lathe

Diagram of an
engine lathe,
showing its
principal
components
Methods of Holding the Work
in a Lathe
• Holding the work between centers
• Chuck
• Collet
• Face plate
Holding the Work Between
Centers

(a) mounting the work between centers using a "dog”

Chuck

(b) three-jaw chuck

Collet
Face Plate

(d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts

Turret Lathe
Tailstock replaced by “turret” that holds
up to six tools
• Tools rapidly brought into action by
indexing the turret
• Tool post replaced by four-sided turret
to index four tools
• Applications: high production work that
requires a sequence of cuts on the part
Boring
• Difference between boring and turning:
• Boring is performed on the inside diameter of
an existing hole
• Turning is performed on the outside diameter
of an existing cylinder
• In effect, boring is internal turning operation
• Boring machines
• Horizontal or vertical - refers to the
orientation of the axis of rotation of machine
spindle
Two types of Horizontal Boring Machine
 Vertical Boring Mill

A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.

 Drilling
• Creates a round hole in a
workpart
• Compare to boring which
can only enlarge an
existing hole
• Cutting tool called a drill
or drill bit
• Machine tool: drill press
 Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blind-holes – does not exit work opposite side

Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.

Reaming Tapping
• Used to slightly
enlarge a hole, • Used to provide
provide better internal screw
tolerance on threads on an
diameter, and existing hole
improve surface • Tool called a tap
finish
 Counterboring Countersinking
• Provides a stepped • Similar to counter
hole, in which a larger boring except that the
diameter follows step in hole is a cone
smaller diameter shaped for flat head
partially into the hole screws and bolts
 Centering
• Also called center drilling
• This operation drills a
starting hole to accurately
establish its location for
subsequent drilling
• The tool is called Center drill
Spotfacing
• Similar to milling.
• It is used to provide a flat
machined surface on the
work part in a localized
area
 Drill Press

• Upright drill press

stands on the floor

• Bench drill similar but

smaller and mounted
on a table or bench
 Radial Drill

Large drill press

designed for
large parts
Work Holding for Drill Presses
• Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of the following:
• Vise - general purpose workholder with two jaws
• Fixture - workholding device that is usually
custom-designed for the particular workpart
• Drill jig – similar to fixture but also provides a means
of guiding the tool during drilling
 Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
• Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
• Creates a planar surface
• Other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape
• Other factors and terms:
• Interrupted cutting operation
• Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called "teeth"
• Machine tool called a milling machine
 Horizontal Milling Machine

horizontal knee-and-column milling machine.

Horizontal Milling Machine
Vertical Milling Machine

vertical knee-and-column milling machine

Conventional Vs Climb Milling
Difference Between Up and
Down milling
 Two Forms of Milling
• Peripheral milling
• Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
• Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
• Face milling
• Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
• Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the
cutter
Slab Milling
• Basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter
width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides
 Slotting
• Width of cutter is less than workpiece width,
creating a slot in the work
• the process of milling surfaces that are at right angles to the
axis of rotation of the cutter with a side milling cutter
Conventional Face Milling
Cutter overhangs work on
both sides
 End Milling
• Cutter diameter is
less than work width,
so a slot is cut into
part
 Profile Milling
Form of end milling in
which the outside
periphery of a flat
part is cut
 Pocket Milling

• Another form of
end milling used to
mill shallow
pockets into flat
parts
Surface Contouring
• Ball-nose cutter fed back
and forth across work
along a curvilinear path
at close intervals to
create a three
dimensional surface form
Slot Milling
High speed face
milling using
indexable inserts
Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool can perform multiple
machining operations under CNC control in one setup
with minimal human attention
• Typical operations are milling and drilling
• Three, four, or five axes
• Other features:
• Automatic tool-changing
• Automatic workpart positioning
Universal machining center; highly automated, capable of multiple
machining operations under computer control in one setup with
minimal human attention
CNC 4-axis turning center; capable of turning and related
operations, contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all
under computer control.
Mill-Turn Centers
Highly automated machine tool that can perform
turning, milling, and drilling operations
• General configuration of a turning center
• Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified
angle so a rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling
cutter) can machine features into outside surface
of part
• Conventional turning center cannot stop
workpart at a defined angular position and
does not include rotating tool spindles
 Operation of Mill-Turn Center

Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with turned, milled, and drilled
surfaces; and (b) sequence of operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second
diameter, (2) mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole with
part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff.
Slab Milling
Shaper

Components of a shaper.
 Shaping and Planing
• Similar operations
• Both use a single point cutting tool moved linearly
relative to the workpart

(a) Shaping, and (b) planing.

Shaping and Planing
• A straight, flat surface is created in both operations
• Interrupted cutting
• Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
• Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion
• Typical tooling: single point high speed steel tools
Planer

Open side planer.

Broaching
• Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly relative
to work in direction of tool axis
Broaching
Advantages:
• Good surface finish
• Close tolerances
• Variety of work shapes possible
Cutting tool called a broach
• Owing to complicated and often custom-shaped geometry,
tooling is expensive
 Internal Broaching

• Performed on internal surface of a hole

• A starting hole must be present in the part to insert
broach at beginning of stroke

Work shapes that can be cut by internal broaching; cross-hatching

indicates the surfaces broached.
Sawing

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
• Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a series of

Manufacturing 3/e
narrowly spaced teeth
• Tool called a saw blade
• Typical functions:
• Separate a workpart into two pieces
• Cut off unwanted portions of part
 Power Hacksaw

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing 3/e
(a) power hacksaw –linear reciprocating motion of hacksaw
blade against work.
 ©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P
Band Saw

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern

Manufacturing 3/e
(b) bandsaw (vertical) – linear
continuous motion of
bandsaw blade, which is in
the form of an endless flexible
loop with teeth on one edge.
 Circular Saw

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing 3/e
(c) circular saw – rotating saw blade provides continuous
motion of tool past workpart.
 Problem 1
• A tapered surface is to be turned on an automatic lathe. The
workpiece is 750 mm long with minimum and maximum
diameters of 100 mm and 200 mm at opposite ends. The
automatic controls on the lathe permit the surface speed to be
maintained at a constant value of 200 m/min by adjusting the
rotational speed as a function of workpiece diameter. Feed = 0.25
mm/rev and depth of cut = 3.0 mm. The rough geometry of the
piece has already been formed, and this operation will be the
final cut. Determine (a) the time required to turn the taper and
(b) the rotational speeds at the beginning and end of the cut.
Solution
(a) MRR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.25 mm)(3.0 mm) = 150,000
mm3/min
Area of frustum of cone A = π(R1 + R2){h2 + (R1 – R2)2}0.5
Given R1 = 100 mm, R2 = 50 mm, and h = 750 mm,
A = π(100 + 50){7502 + (100 – 50)2}0.5 = 150 π(565,000)0.5 = 354,214 mm2
Problem 1
Given depth of cut d = 3.0 mm, volume cut V = Ad = (354,214
mm2)(3.0 mm) = 1,062,641 mm3
Tm = V/MRR = (1,062,641 mm3)/(150,000 mm3/min) = 7.084 min
(b) At beginning of cut (D1 = 100 mm), N = v/ π D
= 200,000/100 π = 636.6 rev/min
At end of cut (D2 = 200 mm), N = 200,000/200 π = 318.3
rev/min
Problem 2
• In the taper turning job of previous Problem, suppose that the
automatic lathe with surface speed control is not available and
a conventional lathe must be used. Determine the rotational
speed that would be required to complete the job in exactly
the same time as your answer to part (a) of that problem.
Solution
At a constant rotational speed and feed, feed rate fr (mm/min) is
constant.
Combining, Tm = L/fr = L/Nf and then rearranging to obtain
rotational speed N =L/fTm
Given L = 750 mm, f = 0.25 mm/rev, and Tm = 7.084 min from the
previous problem:
N = 750/(0.25)(7.084) = 423.5 rev/min
 Problem 3
A 4.00 in diameter workbar that is 25 in long is to be turned down to 3.50
in diameter in two passes on an engine lathe using the following cutting
conditions: v = 300 ft/min, f = 0.015 in/rev, and d = 0.125 in. The bar will be
held in a chuck and supported on the opposite end in a live center. With
this workholding setup, one end must be turned to diameter; then the bar
must be reversed to turn the other end. Using an overhead crane available
at the lathe, the time required to load and unload the bar is 5.0 minutes,
and the time to reverse the bar is 3.0 minutes. For each turning cut an
allowance must be added to the cut length for approach and overtravel.
The total allowance (approach plus overtravel) = 0.50 in. Determine the
total cycle time to complete this turning operation.
Solution
First end: cut 15 in. of 25 in. length. [V = πDN]
N = [300 x 12]/4π = 286.4 rev/min., fr = 286.4(0.015) = 4.297 in/min.
Tm = (15 + 0.5)/4.297 = 3.61 min.; this reduces diameter to 3.75 in.
N = [300 x 12]/3.75π = 305.5 rev/min., fr = 305.5(0.015) = 4.583 in/min.
Tm = 15.5/4.583 = 3.38 min; this reduces diameter to 3.50 in.
Problem 3
Reverse bar which takes 3.0 min. Cut remaining 10 in. of 25 in.
length.
N = 300 x 12/4π = 286.4 rev/min., fr = 286.4(0.015) = 4.297
in/min.
Tm = (10 + 0.5)/4.297 = 2.44 min.; this reduces diameter to 3.75
in.
N = 300 x 12/3.75 π = 305.5 rev/min., fr = 305.5(0.015) = 4.583
in/min.
Tm = 10.5/4.583 = 2.29 min’ this reduces diameter to 3.50 in.
Loading and unloading bar takes 5.0 min.
Total cycle time = 5.0 + 3.61 + 3.38 + 3.0 + 2.44 + 2.29 = 19.72
min.
 Problem 4
• An open side planer is to be used to plane the top surface of a
rectangular workpart, 25.0 in by 40.0 in. Cutting conditions are: v
= 25 ft/min, f = 0.020 in/pass, and d = 0.200 in. The length of the
stroke across the work must be set up so that 10 in are allowed at
both the beginning and end of the stroke for approach and
overtravel. The return stroke, including an allowance for
acceleration and deceleration, takes 75% of the time for the
forward stroke. How long will it take to complete the job,
assuming that the part is oriented in such a way as to minimize
the time?
Solution:
Orient work so that its length (L = 40 in.) is in direction of stroke.
This will minimize the number of passes required which will
minimize time in this case.
Time per forward stroke = (10 + 40 + 10)/(25 x 12) = 0.2 min.
Problem 4
Time per reverse stroke = 0.75(.2) = 0.15 min.
Total time per pass = 0.20 + 0.15 = 0.35 min.
Number of passes = 25.0/0.020 = 1250 passes
Total time = 1250(0.35) = 437.5 min.
Check: orient work so that its width (w = 25 in.) is in direction of
stroke.
Time per forward stroke = (10 + 25 + 10)/(25 x 12) = 0.15 min.
Time per reverse stroke = 0.75(.15) = 0.1125 min.
Total time per pass = 0.15 + 0.1125 = 0.2625 min.
Number of passes = 40.0/0.020 = 2000 passes
Total time = 2000(0.2625) = 525.0 min.