course ou

Landuse Planning and

conservation

CUGEC201

Kunedzimwe F
SCHOOL OF WILDLIFE, ECOLOGY AND
CONSERVATION
DEPARTMENT OF GEOINFORMATICS

BSC HON ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND

GEOINFORMATICS
 Landuse Planning and
conservation

 This module will provide planning skills

including land use management, sustainable
community development and some
environmental planning.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
Specifically the following topics will be covered;
 Introduction on concepts to
land use planning,
Land resources;
geography and law,
property rights and conservation,
protected area encroachment and problems of sprawl,
individual property owners as planners,
concepts used in local government land use planning,
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
 contemporary growth and conservation land use management
techniques (e.g. specific plans, development policies, guidelines,
inter-jurisdictional agreements) sustainable development,

 sustainable community planning, land use zoning and growth

management,

 constitutional and policy issues of planning and global dimension to

land use planning.

Emphasis will be placed on group planning projects and participatory

community-based planning projects.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
Key questions this class will address include:

How are land use and geographic context connected?

What is the proper role of “community” in land use decision
making?
How should we balance private property rights and the public
good?
Which institutional arrangements promote effective land
conservation and development?
The study of land use encompasses not just the nuts and bolts
of policy and planning, but a consideration of the ways in
which landscapes and societal values are mutually
constitutive, that is, how they help shape each other.
 Assignment 1.

Using examples explain the concept of

landuse planning as a driver to landuse
conservation
Due-25-09-2019
Font-times new roman 12
1.5 spacing
At least 5 references
 Landuse Planning and
conservation

LECTURE 1
 Landuse Planning and
conservation

• Imagine your community “fully built-out” with

a house on every zoned house lot and a
business on every zoned commercial and
industrial lot.
• What else would there be?
– Would there be any parks?
– Any woods or fields?
– Would the community have an ample, protected,
clean water supply?
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
 Land use planning is a planning technique to
improve the quality of life.

 This widely adopted technique is one of the most

successful methods followed today.

 According to this, various socio-economic

activities are allocated space in a particular area,
or in other words, areas are assigned specific
activities based on various parameters which will
help in increasing overall efficiency of the area.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
 The major categories on the basis of activities include
 residential,
 commercial,
 transportation,
 public, and
 semi-public use,
 government offices, etc.

 This categorization is considered essential to keep a

balance of different activities taking place in an area.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
 Planning can protect against
 sprawling development,
 reduced property values,
 overall degradation of the natural environment,
 pollution,
 habitat fragmentation,
 traffic congestion,
and overburdened municipal budgets and
infrastructure.
 Planning promotes efficient use of public funds and
effective management of public resources.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
 Three main planning products—
master plans,
open space plans, and
zoning maps and regulations—s
should be designed and implemented in coordination with
one another to protect natural habitats.

 The direct and indirect economic and quality-of-

life effects of community plans should be
carefully considered.
 Local Master Plans: Long-Range
Planning for the Community
• Master plans (also known as comprehensive
plans) are required under state law and are
essential to community health.

• When implemented, they are the most effective

means of guiding growth.

• They help a community develop a common vision

of land use and a plan of action for achieving that
vision..
 Application of land use
planning in planned development
 The planned development is essential for sustainable
development and thus the optimal use of available
resources.

 Since resources are limited it becomes necessary to use

the resources wisely.

 Urban areas which are characterized by high population

density are required to develop as per proper plans
which are known as development plans or master plans.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation

 These plans provide both theoretical and spatial

information which will govern the growth of the
towns and cities.

 Land use planning forms most crucial part in these

plans and is shown in the land use map of such
plans.

 It is done utilizing color coding, i.e., by assigning a

specific color for a particular activity on the map.
 Landuse Planning and
conservation
 On maps which cover a large area, the
predominant land use is shown, and colors are
given as per single level hierarchy, no further
details of activity are shown under the given land
use.
 For example, only the residential area will be
shown and the possible additional information
about the government housing, embassy areas,
plotted housing etc. will not be shown.
 Importance of land
use planning
• Land use planning is essential for governing
the growth of the different activities.

• A certain percentage of land is reserved for

various activities.

• This helps in balancing all the activities and

avoiding the excess of a particular activity.
 Importance of land
use planning
• It also helps in keeping a check on conflicting activities
such as residential and industrial as the pollution from
industries will have an adverse effect on the people living
nearby.

• It also helps in pollution management by segregating

different activities using certain restrictions and regulations.

• These restrictions and categorizations are called zoning,

categorization of permissible and non-permissible activities,
conforming and non-conforming land uses, etc.
 Importance of land
use planning
• Further, land use planning in the master plan is binding
for all the activities, and no development should take
place which does not conform to the assigned land use.

• For example, a person can not carry-out commercial

activity in an area marked for a residential/ industrial
purpose.

• In case someone is found to be violating the rules then

he/she is entitled to legal action against them.

• The complete information about the permitted activities

is provided in different plans which must be followed.
 Benefits of land use planning

• As discussed above the primary benefits include

better quality of life.

• This is achieved because of the reduced need of

travelling, reduced travel distance and time.
 Importance of land
use planning
• Better utilization of resources,
• planned development,
• proper distribution of resources,
• optimal utilization of land,
• helps in reducing pollution and thus improving the
environmental conditions.

• This helps in improving the overall management of

different facilities and services being provided in the
cities.
 land use planning
• Wherever groups of people use land and its resources, land
use is planned, being aware of it or not.
– Land use does not consider production only,
– but also land functions such as protected areas,
– land recreation,
– road-building,
– waste disposal sides and unrestricted areas such as buffer zones for
exhaust gases,
– areas for regenerating groundwater,
– buffer zones for traffic noise pollution, etc.
– Land use planning (LUP) is not only practised when national
authorities intervene or as a result of development co-operation
projects.
 land use planning
• LUP happens in every society, even if the term is not
used.

• Here, land use planning is understood as an

instrument of the technical co-operation used in the
following types of projects:

• resources management (forestry, production systems

compatible with resources and agroforestry, pasture
management, nature protection and erosion control)
 land use planning
• rural regional development

• community support and village development

• government consultation (environmental strategy

planning, agricultural sector planning, development
planning, assessment of land potential
 land use planning
• Class Presentations
 Steps in land-use planning
• Step 1. Establish goals and terms of reference
Step 2. Organize the work
Step 3. Analyse the problems
Step 4. Identify opportunities for change
Step 5. Evaluate land suitability
Step 6. Appraise the alternatives:
environmental,economic and social analysis
Step 7. Choose the best option
Step 8. Prepare the land-use plan
Step 9. Implement the plan
Step 10. Monitor and revise the plan
 land use planning
For each step it gives:
• the objectives, i.e. why the step is needed;
• the main activities included;
• the information to be collected and its sources;
• the people involved and their responsibilities.
 Steps in land-use planning
• Step 1. Establish goals and terms of reference
Step 2. Organize the work
Step 3. Analyse the problems
Step 4. Identify opportunities for change
Step 5. Evaluate land suitability
Step 6. Appraise the alternatives:
environmental,economic and social analysis
Step 7. Choose the best option
Step 8. Prepare the land-use plan
Step 9. Implement the plan
Step 10. Monitor and revise the plan
 Tutorial questions
• Define land use planning
• Define conservation
• Using examples examine the importance of
landuse planning
• Explain the different steps to be followed
when doing landuse planning
• Using examples examine different land
resources that are known
 STEP 1
• Step 1. Establish goals and terms of reference
• Getting started
• The planning effort is launched by discussions between those who want the plan (land users and government) and
the planners. This crucial first step should be a mutual exchange of ideas and information.
• The decision-makers and representatives of the people of the planning area have to brief the planner about the
problems of the area and what they want to achieve. The planner has to make clear how a land-use plan might
help. A reconnaissance field tour, during which representatives of the people concerned are met, can be especially
useful.
• The planning assignment
• The following tasks may be included in this first step of planning. Some of them will be repeated in more detail in
Steps 3 and 4.
• • Define the planning area. Determine and map its location, size, boundaries, access and centres of population.
• • Contact the people involved. Before any decisions are taken, representatives of the farmers and other land users
likely to be affected by the plan should be contacted and their views obtained. This serves two purposes: first, it
provides the planning team with an inside view of the real situation; second, it means that the land users are
aware that changes are being considered instead of being confronted with them subsequently as something
imposed from above. Make sure that all groups of people are contacted, including women's organizations, ethnic
minorities, pastoralists as well as cultivators. Particular attention should be given to ways in which minorities
depend on land resources, e.g. through the collection of minor forest products.
• • Acquire basic information about the area. This is a first stage of gathering information which will be acquired in
more detail in later steps. It is needed at this point to establish what the plan is intended to achieve. The kinds of
information needed are outlined in Basic information about the area (p. 18).
 Importance of land
use planning
• • Establish the goals. The goals may arise from local problems (e.g. low crop yields, fodder shortages) or from national policy and development priorities (e.g. crops for export). At any particular level, the goals
may have been derived from higher levels (from national to district and local) or lower levels (by the amalgamation of local needs) - top-down and bottom-up planning, respectively. List the problems of the area
and the benefits sought; distinguish between long-term goals and those that can be achieved in the planning period; isolate those goals of higher-level plans that apply to the area and those that do not.
• • Identify the problems and opportunities. Illustrate the present land-use situation. Identify the problems that the plan is intended to tackle and the opportunities for improvement.
• • Identify constraints to implementation. Constraints to the implementation of the proposed plan may be legal, economic, institutional, social or environmental. The design of any interventions must explicitly
recognize the capacity of government, other organizations and land users to implement them. The resources available must be specified.
• • Establish the criteria by which land-use decisions will be made. For example, the option chosen may be the one which promises the highest return on investment, or the one which will sustain the greatest rural
population. Where there are several criteria, decide on their relative importance.
• • Set the scope of the plan. How much is the plan supposed to cover? Will other plans still be in effect? For example, will roads or other basic services be covered by the plan?
• • Set the planning period. This is the length of time for which the plan will operate. It could be three or five years or longer, and may be broken down into phases for review and revision.
• • Agree on the content and format of the plan. What will the plan contain? How will it be presented? For example, will it include new crops, improved techniques of land management, extension services,
improvements in infrastructure or new legislation? The format depends on the people who have to be informed and involved; identify the different groups of people concerned.
• • Decide operational questions. These include the funding of the planning operation, the authority and organization of the team, facilities, cooperation with other agencies, record-keeping and reporting
arrangements, key people who can help or who need to be informed and the plan's production schedule.
• Basic information about the area
 Importance of land
use planning
• To get started, the planning team will need some basic information about the land, the people and the organization of administration and services. This information will be obtained in more detail in the analysis of
problems in Step 3. In Step 1, the planner must find out what is available and where to get it, and must identify the people who can serve as contacts between the planning team, specialist agencies and the local
community. The planner must also find out which essential data are not available, so that surveys can be scheduled and costed. The range of information and amount of detail needed will vary according to the
level of planning. Following are examples of information that may be required:
• • Land resources. Climate, hydrology, geology, landforms, soils, vegetation (including forest and pasture resources), fauna, pests and diseases. Sources include topographic base maps, air photographs and satellite
imagery, existing surveys and departmental records. (See Natural resource surveys, p. 78)
• • Present land use. Surveys and departmental records of land use, farming systems, forestry, production levels and trends.
• • Present infrastructure. Transport, communication and services to agriculture, livestock management and forestry.
• • Population. Numbers, demographic trends, location of settlements, the role of women, ethnic groups, class structure, leadership.
• • Land tenure. Legal and traditional ownership and user rights for land, trees and grazing; forest reserves, national parks. (See Land tenure, p. 81)
• • Social structure and traditional practices. Land use is tied up with the history and culture of the people and has usually evolved over a long period. Understanding the present situation is a prerequisite for
devising improvements.
 Importance of land
use planning
• • Government. Administrative structure and key authorities; services provided and demands placed upon them. Ask representatives of the various agencies active in the area to brief the planning team.
• • Legislation. Laws and regulations that affect land use; traditional law and custom; whether laws are enforced. (See Legislation for land use, p. 81.)
• • Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Find out about NGOs in the planning area, for example farming and marketing cooperatives, that may have roles in planning or implementing a land-use plan.
• • Commercial organizations. Contact any commercial organizations, e.g. mining companies, whose interests may be affected.
• Terms of reference and budget
• Step 1 is the foundation of the land-use plan. Misconceptions arising at this stage may be difficult to clear up later. In particular, it is essential to develop close working relationships between the land users, the
decision-makers, the planning team and other participants of the planning process.
• A major requirement of this step is to identify the main components of the planning project. From these, the terms of reference should be defined broadly enough to allow flexibility in finding solutions to the
land-use problems identified while staying within the limits of the time and resources available.
• The output from this step will be a project document (or similar statement) giving the terms of reference of the planning exercise, including its goals, specific objectives, time required and the necessary budget.
 Geography and Law
• The most prominent law in geography is Tobler’s first law
(TFL) of geography, which states that “everything is
related to everything else, but near things are more
related than distant things.” No other law in geography
has received more attention than TFL. It is important
because many spatial statistical methods have been
developed since its publication and, especially since the
advent of geographic information system (GIS) and
geospatial technology, have been conceptually based on
it. These methods include global and local indicators of
spatial autocorrelation (SA), spatial and spatial-temporal
hotspots and cold spots, and spatial interpolation. All of
these are highly relevant to spatial crime analysis,
modeling, and mapping and will be discussed in the
main part of this text
 What is land resource?
• Land resources mean the resources
available from the land,

– thus the agricultural land which contain natural

fertilizer for growth of the products sown;

– the underground water,

– the various minerals like coal,
• bauxite,
• gold and
• other raw materials.
 land resource….
• Land resource refers to the land available for
exploitation, like non agricultural lands for
buildings, developing townships etc

• Land resources (natural resources)

(economically referred to as land or raw
materials) occur naturally within
environments that exist relatively undisturbed
by mankind, in a natural form.
 land resource
• Land is a major resource for agricultural
development worldwide.
•
• The components of the natural land unit can be
termed land resources, including physical, bionic,
environmental, infrastructural, social and
economic components, in as much as they are
fixed to the land unit.
•
• Land, a critically important national resource,
supports all living organisms including plants as
well as every primary production system such as
roads, industries, communication and storage for
surface and ground water, among others.
 A natural resource…
• A natural resource is often characterized by
amounts of biodiversity existent in various
ecosystems.

• Natural resources are derived from the

environment.

• Many of them are essential for our survival while

others are used for satisfying our wants.

• Natural resources may be further classified in

different ways.
 A natural resource
• Underground geological resources (oil,
gas, ores, precious metals), and

• Deeper geohydrological resources that

normally bear no relation to the surface
topography such as confined aquifers, are
excluded from the group of components of
the natural land unit, although it is
recognized that some countries consider
them as part of individual land ownership
 Land as a resource

• Natural resources, in the context of “land” as

defined above, are taken to be those components
of land units that are of direct economic use for
human population groups living in the area, or
expected to move into the area:

• near-surface climatic conditions;

• soil and terrain conditions;

• freshwater conditions; and

 Environmental resources
• Are taken to be those components of the land that
have an intrinsic value of their own, or are of value for
the longer-term sustainability of the use of the land
by human populations, either in loco or regional and
global.

• They include biodiversity of

• plant and animal populations;

• scenic, educational or research value of landscapes;

• protective value of vegetation in relation to soil and

water resources either in loco or downstream;
 Environmental resources
• the functions of the vegetation as a regulator of
the local and regional climate and of the
composition of the atmosphere;

• water and soil conditions as regulators of nutrient

cycles (C, N. P. K, S),

• as influencing human health and as a long-term

buffer against extreme weather events;

• occurrence of vectors of human or animal

diseases (mosquitoes, tsetse flies, blackflies,
etc.)
• Environmental resources are to a large degree
• property rights and conservation
 Property rights
• are theoretical socially-enforced constructs in economics
for determining how a resource or economic good is
used and owned.

• Resources can be owned by (and hence be the property

of) individuals, associations, collectives, or governments.

• Property rights can be viewed as an attribute of an

economic good.

• This attribute has four broad components and is often

referred to as a bundle of rights
 property rights and
conservation
1. the right to use the good
2. the right to earn income from the good
3. the right to transfer the good to others, alter it,
abandon it, or destroy it (the right to ownership
cessation)
4. the right to enforce property rights
 Property Rights and Environmental
Conservation
• Open access
• Private property
• State property
• Historical role of formal and non- formal
institutions in wildlife management State’s
regulatory role of wildlife as res nullius
property as opposed to private property
 What are property rights?
• Rights to ownership
• To have property rights in a thing is to have bundle of rights
that defines a form of ownership
• Becker (1980) identifies a list of bundles of rights that
constitutes the concept of ownership:
i. Right to possess
ii. Right to use
iii. Right to manage
iv. Right to income ( owner forehoes personal use & allows others access
v. Right to consume or destroy
vi. Right to modify
vii. Right to alienate i.e. transfer the benefit stream
viii. Right to transmit i.e. to bequeath his/her interest in a benefit
stream
ix. Right to security
• Apart from right to security, any of the rights can stand as variety
of legal ownership when supplemented by some version of the
right to security
 Types of property ownership
Natural resource management approaches can be
categorised according to the kind and right of
stakeholders, natural resources:
– State Property Regime
– Private Property Regime
– Common Property Regime
– Non-property Regimes (open access)
– Hybrid Regime
 State Property Regime
• Ownership and control over the use of resources
is in hands of the state.

• Individuals or groups may be able to make use of

the resources, but only at the permission of the
state.
– National forest, National parks and military
reservations .
• Within the parks and wildlife act (1975), state
owned land was to be protected and utilized
 Private Property Regime
• Any property owned by a defined individual or
corporate entity.

• Both the benefit and duties to the resources

fall to the owner(s).

• Private land is the most common example.

 Common Property Regimes
• It is a private property of a group.

• The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e.g. indigenous
tribe, neighbours of village.

– Some examples of common property are community forests and water

resources.

• A common property regime is a particular social arrangement regulating the

preservation, maintenance, and consumption of a common-pool resource.
– Examples of common-pool resources include irrigation systems, fishing
grounds, pastures, forests, water or the atmosphere.

• Because their core resources are vulnerable, common-pool resources are

generally subject to the problems of congestion, overuse, pollution, and
potential destruction unless harvesting or use limits are devised and
enforced
 Common Property Regimes guiding principles
Elinor Ostrom (2003), identified eight design principles which are prerequisites for a
stable CPR arrangement:

• Clearly defined boundaries

• Congruence between appropriation and provision rules and local conditions

• Collective-choice arrangements allowing for the participation of most of the

appropriators in the decision making process

• Effective monitoring

• Graduated sanctions for appropriators who do not respect community rules

• Conflict-resolution mechanisms which are cheap and easy of access

• Minimal recognition of rights to organize (e.g., by the government)

• In case of larger CPRs: Organisation in the form of multiple layers of nested enterprises,
with small, local CPRs at their bases.
 Open access
• There is no definite owner of these properties. Each potential user
has equal ability to use it as they wish.

• These areas are the most exploited. It is said that "Everybody's

property is nobody’s property".
– An example is a lake fishery.

• This ownership regime is often linked to the ‘tragedy of the

commons’
 Tragedy of the commons
• The tragedy of the commons is the depletion of a shared resource by
individuals, acting independently and rationally according to each one's
self-interest, despite their understanding that depleting the common
resource is contrary to the group's long-term best interests.

• The concept is often cited in connection with sustainable development,

meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in
the debate over global warming.

• "Commons" can include the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, fish stocks,

national parks, advertising, and even parking meters.

• Some also see the "tragedy" as an example of emergent behaviour, the

outcome of individual interactions in a complex system.
 Hybrid Regimes
• Many ownership regimes governing natural resources will contain parts of more
than one of the regimes described above, so natural resource managers need to
consider the impact of hybrid regimes.
– An example of such a hybrid is native vegetation management in NSW,
Australia, where legislation recognises a public interest in the preservation
of native vegetation, but where most native vegetation exists on private
land.
 Contending paradigms
• There are two opposing schools of thought
regarding the ownership of wildlife
a. Opponents of ownership
b. Proponents of ownership
Protected area encroachment
and problems of sprawl.
• The massive influx of migration towards urban
areas, in developing countries has resulted in
the over-population of these areas.
• Population is increasing at higher rates than
the national government’s ability to provide
services for sustainable, healthy living
environments.

• Hence the vast majority of Third World cities

are increasingly faced with the problems of
deprived neighborhoods.
• The failure of government to expand water supply, sanitation,
energy resources, security, social amenities, aesthetics, and
transportation to the unplanned settlements in the urban periphery
where most of the urban poor live has resulted in misery and urban
decay.

• The ongoing rapid urbanization without adequate urban

governance and service provision means that a substantial
proportion of urban population is at risk of environmental hazards
such as increasing urban poverty, homelessness, ill-health,
pollution, crime and vice among others.

• This may also be a result of increasing urban population with little

or no consideration for the institutional framework to ensure that
these implications are addressed. Thus increasing the number and
seriousness of urban environmental problems seems to have taken
a severe toll on towns, and threaten all societies, poor and affluent
alike.
 Urban sprawl has growing impact on parks

• Urban sprawl is at the base of all the problems affecting

National Parks.

• Urban sprawl is the technical term given to the rise of

suburban neighborhoods as a city expands outwards with
low-density development.

• While this may seem more optimal than a very densely

packed city, this is not the case as the large expanse of
suburban development has a larger negative impact on the
environment.

• Unfortunately, this is precisely how this is how most of the

cities have grown.
Urban Sprawl Over the Agricultural Land
• Land use pressures are particularly mounting on
the edges of the urban areas; much of the land
resources and capital lies in private hands. This
puts a heavy responsibility on public bodies to
maintain the balance between urban
development and conservation needs.
• Traffic Congestion
• Traffic congestion is a common problem in these
towns.
• Water shortage
• In some cities like Iraq and Syria, water is
Waste Disposal
• Closely related to water supply is the problem of sewage and waste
disposal. The general picture is either of total absence or
inadequacy of existing system of sewage and waste disposal. The
present open dumping of garbage another refuses on the out skirts
of the towns in an uncovered area constitutes a menace.

Housing and Shanty Towns/Squatering

• Urbanization is closely related to housing problems since the
population movements. In private sector, the rural migrants rapidly
constructing one-room houses without amenities, which quickly
deteriorate into dilapidated unhealthy slums.

• The high land prices made it difficult for many of the new urban
dwellers to find even the most modest housing facilities, which
ultimately force them to live in almost subhuman condition, with lack
of piped water and sewerage and inadequate transport link. Labour
get job, which does not provide enough money to pay for even low
standard housing.
• High Land Prices
• The high rate of land-price in the cities of developing
countries does not yet express the role of land factor in
urban growth. As a result of high land-prices in big cities,
rapid population growth is concentrated in the regions
outside the big cities.

• There the rate of land-price is constantly multiplying.

• For example, in India between 1950 and 1969 the price

of land in undeveloped areas within the city has
increased by 900% while the price of land on the
outskirts of the city has increased by 1300%.
• High Cost of Housing:
• The continuous and high rate of increase in the land prices has many
effects. Firstly, the increasing cost of land results in high cost of houses.
This puts a strain on the low-income people, forcing them to acquire land for
housing far away from the city. High land price

• Transportation:
• Cities struggled to provide adequate transit systems.

• Water:
• Without safe drinking water cholera and typhoid fever were common

• Crime:
• As populations increased thieves flourished.

• Fire:
• Limited water, wooden structures, and the use of candles led to many major
urban fires.
 habitat
encroachment
• Several suburban and urban developments have
recently come face to face with a problem they
never really considered: wild animals
Habitat Fragmentation
Many times, natural
habitats show a
“patchy”
distribution.
This affects the
organisms that live
there.
However, in today’s world the effect of anthropogenic habitat
fragmentation is probably much more significant.
Equally significant is the fact that many of the organisms in these
habitats are not “adapted” for such fragmentation.
Activities such as “clearcutting” have created a mosaic of forested and
unforested areas in many regions that were once completely covered with
forests.
With the growth of human
population and the increasing
removal of natural habitat,
the remaining wild areas
begin to take the form of
“habitat islands” surrounded
by relatively uninhabitable
areas.
This habitat fragmentation is
an increasingly serious
problem in biological
conservation.
The most noteworthy effects of the
fragmentation of natural habitats are:
1. The formation of isolated patches of
habitat.
2. The increasing significance of edge
effects.
Since the remaining habitat begins to
resemble an island, the ideas of
island biogeography theory are
applied to them.
On small islands, the number of species results primarily from
the interaction of two processes:

Colonization

Extinction

The point at which these two rates are in equilibrium will

determine the number of species found on the island.
In theory, the colonization rate will start out
high and decline, since there the initial
number of species is low (or none).

The extinction rate will start out low (for the

same reason) and rise.

Eventually, the two will reach an equilibrium.

Colonization and extinction rates
vary with a number of factors.
Among the most important are
the size of the island and its
distance from the species pool
(the “mainland”).
So, what happens if we form an “island” from an
area that was once part of a larger habitat.

It will, initially, probably contain more species than

the equilibrium of colonization and extinction can
support.
This, in theory, would lead to biotic relaxation.

Biotic relaxation is simply a decline in the number

of species when a formerly “connected” region
becomes isolated as it approaches a new
equilibrium.
The effect of area and isolation on the number of
species can be examined using species-area
curves. These curves plot the number of species
versus the size of the area examined. Typically,
both are plotted on a log scale. The result is
usually a straight line, the slope of which is an
indication of how fast the number of species
changes with increasing area.
Typically, species-area curves for islands
have steeper slopes than those for non-
isolated areas.
What does this mean?
It means that, when we reduce the
size of a habitat we can expect to
lose species.
In habitat islands, the relatively high
rate of colonization and extinction
result in a rapid “turnover” of
species.
In other words, although the number
of species may remain relatively
constant, the actual species that are
present may change.
National Parks are
habitat islands, and
often show biotic
relaxation. This is often
most pronounced in the
smaller parks. Mount
Rainier National Park in
Washington has seen a
reduction in the number
of mammals found
there from 68 to 37
species.
Some species seem to be “area-
sensitive”, meaning that they are at a
high risk of extinction if the habitat
reaches some critical minimum level.
A study by Robbins et. Al (1989) identified
a number of such species of birds,
including pileated woodpeckers, white-
breasted nuthatches, and scarlet
tanagers.
Habitat fragmentation may create a
metapopulation, a group of
subpopulations varying in size.
Some of the smaller of these will tend to
go extinct often (sink populations), and
are only repopulated by individuals
dispersing from larger subpopulations
(source populations)
In such a situation, the survival of the
species in a region depends on the
dynamics of the subpopulations.
If too many populations are small, and
become sinks, then the whole
population will move toward extinction.
The study of these dynamics has
introduced modeling into conservation
biology.
Spatially explicity models combine
population models with landscape
maps to make mathematical
predictions.
The creation of habitat patches from
formerly continuous woodlands modifies
the microclimate of the forest, resulting in
increased edge effects.
Environmental conditions around edges
are different from those in the interior.
This results in differences in the types of
trees, the understory, and even the
animals.
One effect is the ability of predators
from open habitats to penetrate forest
edges and prey on the animals there.

Striped skunk
Blue jay

Common crow
The brown-headed cowbird is a
nest parasite that frequents
edge habitats.
A study in California looked at the number of
chaparral bird species in isolated canyons in an
urban setting. The number of bird species
declined as the size of the canyon decreased.
Interesting, canyons visited by coyotes had more
bird species than those that were not. The
coyotes apparently helped control the abundance
of bird predators, like skunks and domestic cats.
How strong is the island effect for
different types of organisms?
Study in Western Australia:
Slope for birds: 0.18
Slope for lizards: 0.25
Slope for non-flying mammals: 0.39
Many mammals were extinct on the
smaller preserves.

Bandicoot
Estimates are that the Mkomazi Game Reserve
in Tanzania would lose 17 of its 39 species of
large mammals in the next 300 years if it is
separated from surrounding reserves.
Species-area curves can be used to predict how large a
reserve must be to preserve its biological diversity.
For the Australian wheatbelt region, estimates are that a
reserve of 43,000 hectares would be necessary to
preserve all 25 species, and a reserve ¾ that large to
preserve 90% of them.
The largest current preserve is 5119 hectares.
What are the problems with estimates like these?
Based on work initiated by Terborgh, 5000 square
kilometers has been adopted as a rough minimum size
for major tropical forest preserve in the Amazon Basin.
Based on very speculative reasoning, it is thought that
this might reduce extinction rates to less than 1%.
Biological Dynamics of
Forest Fragments
Project
Near Manaus, Brazil, forest patches
have been established:
1, 10, 100, 1000, and 10 000 hectares.
Censused prior to isolation, and will be
studied for at least 20 years.
So, what does it all mean?
Expect to have to address that, in
your own thoughts and words.
• Residents of the Bronx report seeing packs of

– coyotes in their parks,

– alligators hanging out in Florida homeowners’

backyards have become a more common sight with
the encroachment on the state’s wetlands,

– herds of deer are spotted walking through backyards

on a regular basis across the United States, posing
threats to drivers on highways.
• Issues with habitat encroachment in our rural
areas – farmers deal with wolves and other large
predators on their lands many times a year.

• What people seem to find more disturbing is

when animals wander into suburban areas for
food, water and shelter – take the common
white-tailed deer, for example.
 group tasks
Landuse planning is a solution to sprawl. Discuss
Answer the question in groups of two not more
than 3 pages.
Submit the group work before the end of day.
 Steps in land-use planning
• This section sets out the tasks involved in making a
land-use plan following the ten steps outlined. For
each step it gives:
• • the objectives, i.e. why the step is needed;
• the main activities included;
• the information to be collected and its sources;
• the people involved and their responsibilities.
• Step 1 is the foundation of the land-use plan.
Misconceptions arising at this stage may be difficult to
clear up later.

• In particular, it is essential to develop close working

relationships between the land users, the decision-makers,
the planning team and other participants of the planning
process.

• A major requirement of this step is to identify the main

components of the planning project.
• .
• From these, the terms of reference should be defined broadly
enough to allow flexibility in finding solutions to the land-use
problems identified while staying within the limits of the time and
resources available.

• The output from this step will be a project document (or similar
statement) giving the terms of reference of the planning exercise,
including its goals, specific objectives, time required and the
necessary budget
• Define the planning area. Determine and map its
location, size, boundaries, access and centres of
population.
• • Contact the people involved. Before any decisions are taken,
representatives of the farmers and other land users likely to be affected by
the plan should be contacted and their views obtained.
• This serves two purposes: first, it provides the planning team with an
inside view of the real situation; second, it means that the land users are
aware that changes are being considered instead of being confronted with
them subsequently as something imposed from above.

• Make sure that all groups of people are contacted, including women's
organizations, ethnic minorities, pastoralists as well as cultivators.

• Particular attention should be given to ways in which minorities depend on

land resources, e.g. through the collection of minor forest products.
 Acquire basic information about the
area.
• This is a first stage of gathering information which
will be acquired in more detail in later steps.

• It is needed at this point to establish what the plan is

intended to achieve.

• The kinds of information needed are outlined in Basic

information about the area
• Establish the goals. The goals may arise from local problems
(e.g. low crop yields, fodder shortages) or from national policy
and development priorities (e.g. crops for export).

• At any particular level, the goals may have been derived from
higher levels (from national to district and local) or lower
levels (by the amalgamation of local needs) - top-down and
bottom-up planning, respectively.

• List the problems of the area and the benefits sought;

distinguish between long-term goals and those that can be
achieved in the planning period; isolate those goals of higher-
level plans that apply to the area and those that do not.
• Identify the problems and opportunities. Illustrate
the present land-use situation. Identify the problems
that the plan is intended to tackle and the
opportunities for improvement.
 Identify constraints to
implementation.
• Constraints to the implementation of the proposed plan
may be legal, economic, institutional, social or
environmental.

• The design of any interventions must explicitly

recognize the capacity of government, other
organizations and land users to implement them.

• The resources available must be specified.

 Establish the criteria by which
land-use decisions will be made
• For example, the option chosen may be the one
which promises the highest return on investment, or
the one which will sustain the greatest rural
population.

• Where there are several criteria, decide on their

relative importance.
 Set the scope of the plan.
• How much is the plan supposed to cover?

• Will other plans still be in effect?

• For example, will roads or other basic services be

covered by the plan?
 Set the planning period.
• This is the length of time for which the plan will
operate.

• It could be three or five years or longer, and may be

broken down into phases for review and revision.
 Agree on the content and
format of the plan
• . What will the plan contain?

• How will it be presented?

• For example, will it include new crops, improved

techniques of land management, extension services,
improvements in infrastructure or new legislation?

• The format depends on the people who have to be

informed and involved; identify the different groups of
people concerned.
 Decide operational questions
• These include the funding of the planning operation,
the authority and organization of the team, facilities,
cooperation with other agencies, record-keeping and
reporting arrangements, key people who can help or
who need to be informed and the plan's production
schedule.
 Basic information about the
area
• Land resources. Climate, hydrology, geology,
landforms, soils, vegetation (including forest and
pasture resources), fauna, pests and diseases.

• Sources include topographic base maps, air

photographs and satellite imagery, existing surveys
and departmental records.
• Present land use. Surveys and departmental
records of land use, farming systems, forestry,
production levels and trends.

• • Present infrastructure. Transport,

communication and services to agriculture,
livestock management and forestry.

• • Population. Numbers, demographic trends,

location of settlements, the role of women,
ethnic groups, class structure, leadership.
• • Land tenure. Legal and traditional ownership and user rights
for land, trees and grazing; forest reserves, national parks

• • Social structure and traditional practices. Land use is tied up

with the history and culture of the people and has usually
evolved over a long period. Understanding the present
situation is a prerequisite for devising improvements

• • Government. Administrative structure and key authorities;

services provided and demands placed upon them. Ask
representatives of the various agencies active in the area to
brief the planning team.
• • Legislation. Laws and regulations that affect land
use; traditional law and custom; whether laws are
enforced. (See Legislation for land use, p. 81.)

• • Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Find out

about NGOs in the planning area, for example
farming and marketing cooperatives, that may have
roles in planning or implementing a land-use plan

Commercial organizations. Contact any commercial

organizations, e.g. mining companies, whose interests
may be affected.
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning
Importance of land
use planning