Strain

The deformation that happens to an object (a rock) after applying a

stress on that object, the deformation refers to the change in shape or
volume in relative to the original shape. It is abbreviated by the Greek
latter (ε) (epsilon). ε = Δl/l or е/l, e= difference of length after and
before deformation, l= the original length.
Types of strain
There are two types of strain:
1- Normal strain:
A- compressive.
B- tensile.
C- volumetric.
2- Shear strain.
 1- Normal strain
Is a response to the normal stresses (compression and tensional stresses).
A- compressive strain: when we apply a compressive force on a body, its
length decreases. The ratio of decrease in length to the original length is
called compressive strain.
Compressive strain =εᶜ =L- Lₒ/L , Where L= original length, Lₒ=new length.
Figure 2.

Figure2, the compression strain

during compression stress.
 B- tensile strain: when we apply a tensile force on a body, its length
increases. The ratio of increase in length to the original length is called
tensile strain.
Tension strain=εᵗ = L-Lₒ/ L
Where L=original length, Lₒ= new length. Figure 3.

Figure 3, tensional strain as a result of extensive force F

C- volumetric strain: when we apply a force on all sides of a body, its
volume will decrease. The ration of change in volume to the original
volume is called volumetric strain.
Volumetric strain= εᵥ= V-Vₒ/V, Where V=original volume. Vₒ = new
volume. Figure 4.

Figure 4, the volumetric strain

2- Shear strain
When we apply a force parallel to the surface, there is angular
displacement begins from the y axis to the deformed surface. This
angle called (ψ) which measures the shear strain ‫ץ‬. Figure 5.
shear strain= ‫= ץ‬tanψ.

Figure 5, shear strain and shear strain calculation.

Strain dimensions
Strain can be analyzed from three dimensional views:
1- Strain in one-dimension:
such as stretching or shortening a linear straight object. Figure6.

Figure6, one dimension strain when a straight object is stretched.

2-Strain in two-dimensions: it concerns with the change that happens
in 2D sections such as a circle object when turns to ellipse object when
it deformed. Figure7.

y y

x x

Figure7, two- dimensions strain when a circle object is compressed and stretched.
3- Strain in three-dimensions:
It concerns with the change in three axes of an object. This will lead for
example to turn the spheroid to ellipsoid during deformation. Figure8.

Figure 8, strain in three dimensions when a spheroid was

strained to ellipsoid.
The strain can appears in an elastic behavior, a brittle behavior, and a
plastic behavior. Figure 9 on next slide shows the relationship between
stress and strain during compression on an cylindrical sample.
Figure 9, The proportional linear relationship between stress and strain.
It is seen from figure 9 that there are three types of rock materials that
respond (strain) proportionally to stress. The sample A in a green color
is strong and having maximum fracture point, and passes through three
stages of deformation; long elasticity with dashed lines, short plasticity
and fracture (brittle), example the igneous and metamorphic rocks in
response to tectonic activity (compression, tension, shear).
The red sample passes through two stages of deformation; the long
elastic deformation – dashed lines- and fracture, examples, claystone,
chert and sandstone in response to a tectonic activity (compression,
tension, shear).
However, the yellow sample has three stages of deformation; short
elasticity –dashed lines-, long plasticity and fracture point. Example is
carbonate rocks during tectonism (compression, tension, shear).
Factors control the type of strain
As it seen in figure 9, there are three behaviors of rocks during
deformation. The behavior of rocks when strained in response to stress
depends on the following factors:
1- The composition and physical properties of the rocks:
The hard rocks tend to be fractured hardly as igneous and metamorphic
rocks. See the green curve in a figure 9.. The wet or relatively soft rocks
such as limestone will have more elasticity and will stay longer time until it
ruptures. See the yellow curve. The dried soft rocks such as sandstone or
claystone will be fractured easily beyond the elasticity point. See the curve
in a red color.
2- The temperature of the crust:
The uppermost level of the crust of 7 km is relatively cooler than the
lowermost level. Thus regardless the composition, the temperature has
a vital role in controlling the rock strain. For instances, the rocks at
upper levels will tend to be fractured more than those located at lower
levels during deformation. The rocks at lower levels will tend to be
folded due to high temperature.
3- The rate at which the stress is applied. If the stress is applied quickly
(for example, because of an extraterrestrial impact or an earthquake),
there will be an increased tendency for the rock to fracture.
Strain in the rocks
The geological features that generate from a stress called a strain.
Strain in the rocks includes:
1- Compression strain:
A- convergent or folding in a ductile (plastic) behavior when
deformation is progressive or when the temperature is high.
B- reverse faulting in a brittle (fracture) behavior when deformation is
sudden (earthquake) or when the temperature is low.
C- fracturing such as joints in a brittle (fracture) behavior when
deformation is sudden (earthquake) or when the temperature is low.
2- Tension strain:
A- thinning or stretching such as divergent basins of red sea, this
develops in a ductile (plastic) behavior when deformation is progressive
or when the temperature is high.
B- normal faulting, in a brittle (fracture) behavior when deformation is
sudden (earthquake) or when the temperature is low.
C- fracturing such as joints in a brittle (fracture) behavior when
deformation is sudden (earthquake) or when the temperature is low.
3- Shear strain:
A- shearing or folding in a horizontal way, this develops in a ductile
(plastic) behavior when deformation is progressive or when the
temperature is high.
B- transform or strike slip faulting, in a brittle (fracture) behavior when
deformation is sudden (earthquake) or when the temperature is low.
C- shear zone micro-fractures such as tension gashes, in a brittle
(fracture) behavior when deformation is sudden (earthquake) or when
the temperature is low. Figures 10, 11 and 12
Figure10, different types of strain
Figure 11, different types of
geological features (strains) as
seen from the field.
Figure12- tension gashes or micro-fracture.
These fractures are seen in a naked-eye, and because of that
called micro-fracture, they develop as a response to the
regional or macro fracture which is called strike slip fault.