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5)
The simplest model of a liquid-gas phase
transition - the van der Waals model of
“real” gases – grasps some essential
features of this phase transformation.
(Note that there is no such transformation
in the ideal gas model). This will be our
Nobel 1910
attempt to take intermolecular
interactions into account.
Outline
• Thermodynamics of vdW gas
• critical point
• liquid-gas phase transition
van der Waals gas = ideal gas + interaction
short-distance
repulsion The main reason for the transformation of
4
gas into liquid at decreasing T and (or)
U(r) 3 increasing P - interaction between the
2 molecules.
Energy
N N 2a
U N a
-3
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
r
distance
r= V V
N 2a N 2a
Lennard-Jones long-distance U vdW U IG Peff P 2
attraction
12 6
V V
U r
r r - the constant a is a measure of the long-
range attraction
the strong short-range repulsion: the molecules are rigid: P as soon as the
molecules “touch” each other.
- the constant b (~ 43/3) is a measure of the short-range
Veff V Nb repulsion, the “excluded volume” per particle
N 2a N 2a
P 2 V Nb NkBT
The vdW equation NkBT
P 2
of state
V V Nb V
The van der Waals Parameters
b – roughly the volume of a molecule, (3.5·10-29 – 1.7 ·10-28) m3 ~(few Å)3
a – varies a lot [~ (8·10-51 – 3 ·10-48) J · m3] depending on the intermolecular
interactions (strongest – between polar molecules, weakest – for inert gases).
Substance a’ b’ Pc Tc
(J. m3/mol2) (x10-5 m3/mol) (MPa) (K)
Air .1358 3.64 3.77 2 133 K
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) .3643 4.27 NA
7.39 a
a 304.2 K ' N Ab b '
N 2a
When can P 2 V Nb NkBT be reduced to PV NkBT ?
V
Nb V - low densities
Na Na
PV N k BT k BT - high temperatures
V V (kinetic energy >> interaction energy)
Problem
The vdW constants for N2: NA2a = 0.136 Pa·m6 ·mol-2, NAb = 3.85·10-5 m3 ·mol-1.
How accurate is the assumption that Nitrogen can be considered as an ideal gas at
normal P and T?
N 2a
P 2 V Nb NkBT
V
NA2a / V2 = 0.135 Pa·m6 ·mol-2 /(2.5 ·10-2 m3 ·mol-1) 2 = 216 Pa NA2a / V2P = 0.2%
Entropy of monatomic van der Waals gas
V N 2 mU
3N / 2
1
Multiplicity of ideal gas: IG N ,V ,U 2p
N ! 3 N / 2 ! h 2
N 2a
van der Waals gas: Veff V Nb U vdW U IG
V
Multiplicity of monatomic van der Waals gas:
3N / 2
1 V Nb 2 m U
N N 2a
vdW N ,V ,U 2p
V
N ! 3N / 2 ! h2
Entropy of monatomic van der Waals gas:
V Nb 4 m U N 2 a 3/ 2 5
SvdW ( N ,V ,U ) Nk B ln 2
V
N 3h N 2
Is it correct?
Equations of state (vdW)
V Nb 4 m U N 2 a 3/ 2 5
SvdW ( N ,V ,U ) Nk B ln 2
V
N 3h N 2
Equations of state:
1 S 3 N 2a
U vdW Nk BT
T U V , N 2 V
S NkBT N 2a
P T P 2
V U , N V Nb V
S
T
N U ,V
V Nb 2 mk BT 3/ 2 2 Na Nb
k BT ln
N h
2
V V Nb
Nk B ln T Nk B ln V Nb const
f
(see Pr. 5.12) S vdW
2
- the same “volume” in the
Nb V Nb 2 m 5
3/ 2
momentum space, smaller
SvdW Sideal NkB ln 1 N k B ln 2 k BT
V N h 2 accessible volume in the
coordinate space.
3 N 2a V Nb 2 m 5
3/ 2
Nb N a F
2
Fideal N k BT ln 1 NkBT aN 2
FvdW PvdW 2
V V V T V Nb V
V Nb 2 m 2aN
3/ 2 2
N 2b
G GvdW F PV Nk BT ln 2 k BT k BT N
N h V V Nb
isobaric ( P = const )
P 2
W12 P(V , T )dV PV2 V1 0
2 1
1 T2 U dV
Q12 CP T CP CV P
T1 V T dT P
V1 V2 V
dU W12 Q12 complicate
Isothermal Process in a vdW Gas (low n, high T)
isothermal ( T = const ) :
P
N 2a N 2a
PV= NkBT U T
V1 V2
V2
W
W12 P(V , T )dV
V2 V1 V V1
Nk BT N 2a
V2
2 dV
Wi-f > 0 if Vi >Vf (compression)
V1
V Nb V
Wi-f < 0 if Vi <Vf (expansion)
V2 Nb N 2 a N 2 a
Nk BT ln
V1 Nb V1 V2
V2 Nb
Q12 U W12 Nk BT ln
V1 Nb
Isothermal Process in a vdW Gas (low n, high T)
For N2, the vdW coefficients are N2a = 0.138 kJ·liter/mol2 and Nb = 0.0385
liter/mol. Evaluate the work of isothermal and reversible compression of N2
(assuming it is a vdW gas) for n=3 mol, T=310 K, V1 =3.4 liter, V2 =0.17 liter.
Compare this value to that calculated for an ideal gas. Comment on why it is
easier (or harder, depending on your result) to compress a vdW gas relative to an
ideal gas under these conditions.
const. T V Nb
1
1
T2 V Nb T 3/ 2
const.
T1
V2 V1 V
N 2a
V2 P 2
V Nb const
W12 P(V , T )dV V
V1
recall:
3 N 2
a N 2
a
U NkB T2 T1
2
U vdW
3
Nk BT
N a
2 V 2 V1 V2
e 1
QC
1 B 1 V2 Nb V Nb
1 1
V Nb
1 1
QH TA TD TA TD V2 Nb V2 Nb
The van der Waals Isotherms
NkBT aN 2 Nk T aN 2
abN 3
P 2 V 3 Nb B V 2 V 0
V Nb V P P P
unstable
0
N·b
The Critical Point
The critical point is the unique point where both
(dP/dV)T = 0 and (d2P/dV 2)T = 0 (see Pr. 5.48)
Critical parameters:
1 a 8 a
VC 3Nb PC 2
k BTC
27 b 27 b
P V T
Pˆ Vˆ Tˆ - in terms of P,T,V normalized by the critical parameters:
PC VC TC
ˆ 3 ˆ 1 8kBTˆ
P ˆ 2 V
V 3 3
- the materials parameters vanish if we introduce the proper scales.
27 k BTC
2
1 a 8 a k T
PC k BTC b B C a
27 b 2 27 b 8PC 64 PC
a
27 k BTC
2
27 1.38 1023 J/K 151 K 2
F2 N gas V V1 N liquid V2 V
(gas) N N gas N liquid
N V2 V1 N V2 V1
F F V V2 V V
F 1 N liquid 2 N gas F1 F2 1
N N V1 V2 V1 V2
- we recognize this as the common tangent line.
n / nC
n / nC P / PC
F 3n 3nC 1 9 n
k BT ln C
ln 1 k BTC
N T ,V nQ n 3nC / n 1 4 nC
For T<TC, there are three values of n with the same . The outer two values of n
correspond to two stable phases which are in equilibrium with each other.
The kink on the G(V) curve is a signature of the 1st order transition. When we move
along the gas-liquid coexistence curve towards the critical point, the transition
becomes less and less abrupt, and at the critical point, the abruptness disappears.
P 7 T < TC The Maxwell Construction
3
[finding the position of line 2-6 without analyzing F(V)]
6
Pvap 2
4 On the one hand, using the dashed line on the F-V
1 plot:
5
F
Fgas Fliquid V2 V6 Pvap V2 V6
V
F
V T , N
V
Fliq
On the other hand, the area under the vdW isoterm
2-6 on the P-V plot:
Fgas
F
V2 V2
P V dV P V V6
5 2,6
vdW vap 2
V6
1
V
Vliq
Vgas
N1 4
F R / V1
3
condensation:
N 3
unstable
interface: 4 R 2
Total balance: F RC R
VC
V1(T) V2(T) V N1 4
F 4 R 2 F R / V1
3
P 2F N 3
0, 0
V V 2
heating
H H H H
H T P 0 CP CP T P
T P P T T P P T
H V H S
T V H TS VP T V
T P T T P P T P T
S V
P H CP CP (see Pr. 5.12)
P T T P
This is a pretty general (model-independent) result. By applying this result to the vdW
equation, one can qualitatively describe the shape of the inversion curve (requires solving
cubic equations...).
Na
V N 2 a V V Nk B 2 Nb
P 2 Nk B T
k BT
T P V T P T P P N a
2
P H CP
V2
Joule-Thomson Process for the vdW Gas (cont.)
2a 2a
Cooling: b 0 Heating: b 0
k BT k BT
If b = 0, T always decreases in the JT process: an increase of Upot at the expense of K.
If a = 0, T always increases in the JT process (despite the work of molecular forces is 0):
RT N 2a 2 1 1 V2 Nb
V2 V2
F PdV
2 dV N a RT ln
V1 V1
V Nb V V1 V2 V1 Nb
compare with F U TS
1
U vdW T N 2a 1 TSvdW T
V1 V2