THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
 Nervous System
 Has two main divisions
1. Central Nervous System
( CNS) brain, spinal cord

2. Peripheral Nervous System

( PNS) all other nerves
 PARTS OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
• CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM PERIPHERAL
• BRAIN AUTONOMIC
• CEREBRUM SYMPATHETIC
• CEREBELLUM FIGHT OR FLIGHT
• BRAIN STEM AND PARASYMPATHETIC
PONS RELAXATION
• LOBES (4) SOMATIC
• SPINAL CORD SENSORY AND
• “INFORMATION MOTOR NERVES
 2 MAIN DIVISIONS:
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
• RECEIVES, INTERPRETS AND SENDS
SIGNALS TO PNS
• HAS 2 MAIN PARTS:
•BRAIN – MAIN CONTROL CENTER
•SPINAL CORD – CONNECTS AND
RELAYS NERVE IMPULSES TO THE
BRAIN
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
 CONNECTS CNS TO ALL ORGAN SYSTEMS
 MADE UP OF:
 SENSORY NEURONS: DETECT STIMULI
 MOTOR NEURONS: CARRY SIGNAL TO STIMULATE
RESPONSE

 2 MAJOR SUBSYSTEMS:
 SOMATIC – VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (BALANCE,
MOVEMENT)
 AUTONOMIC – INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (DIGESTION,
FIGHT OR FLIGHT)
•Smaller part of the brain ,towards the
back

FUNCTIONS:

•Coordinates all movement

•Helps maintain posture, muscle control,
and balance
• LARGE FRONT PART OF THE BRAIN
FUNCTIONS:
• VOLUNTARY ACTIVITY
• MEMORY
• LANGUAGE
• RECEIVES AND RESPONDS TO SENSORY SIGNALS

• CONTROLS MOTOR FUNCTIONS

 TOP LAYER OF THE BRAIN
STORES: EXPERIENCES AND/OR
LEARNING
Parietal-
Sensory info
concerning touch
Frontal-
behavior &
emotion

Occipital- vision

Temporal- memory & emotion, speech and hearing

BRAIN STEM PONS
SWALLOWING, BREATHING

COUGHING, SNEEZING, HEART RATE

INTERNAL ORGANS
AND VOMITING
INCLUDES THE
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
• Damage in this area
will usually kill you.

Medulla
“CONTROLS: EMOTIONS AND MEMORIES”

Damage to
these areas
can lead to
amnesia or
emotional
disturbances
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS:

• A PHYSICALLY CONNECTED
NETWORK OF CELLS, TISSUES
AND ORGANS THAT ALLOW US
TO COMMUNICATE WITH AND
REACT TO THE ENVIRONMENT
AND PERFORM LIFE ACTIVITIES.
 COOL NERVOUS SYSTEM FACTS:

• AS A FETUS IN THE WOMB, NEURONS DEVELOP AT

THE RATE OF 250,000 PER MINUTE.
• WE HAVE ABOUT 100 BILLION NERVE CELLS IN OUR
BRAIN BY ADULTHOOD (OVER 600 MILES WORTH) –
YET WE TYPICALLY USE AROUND 4% AT ANY GIVEN
TIME
• NEURONS ARE OUR LARGEST CELLS
• MESSAGES TRANSMIT AT SPEEDS UP OF TO 180 MPH
 FOUR PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. SENSING THE WORLD

 VISION, HEARING, SMELL, TASTE, TOUCH

2. TRANSMITTING INFORMATION
3. PROCESSING INFORMATION
4. PRODUCING A RESPONSE
 THE FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM IS THE NERVE CELL, THE NEURON

THEY SEND
ELECTROCHEMICAL
MESSAGES AROUND THE
BODY
 GLIAL CELLS PROVIDE SUPPORT AND
PROTECTION FOR NEURONS
PARTS OF A NEURON
NERVE CELL
 PARTS OF NERVE CELL
• DENDRITES : RECIEVE CHEMICAL SIGNALS FROM
NEIGHBORING CELLS.
• CELL BODY: CONTAINS THE NUCLEUS & ORGANELLES
• AXON: LONG EXTENSION THAT CARRIES
ELECTRICAL MESSAGES AWAY FROM THE BODY TO
THE TERMINAL AXONS
• TERMINAL AXONS: PASSES THE SIGNAL TO THE
NEXT CELL.
• MYELIN SHEATH: PROTECTIVE COVERING FOR AXON
 TYPES OF NEURONS
• 3 MAIN TYPES OF NEURONS:
• SENSORY NEURON = DETECT STIMULI
• INTERNEURONS = RELAY SENSORY SIGNALS TO
BRAIN THEN RETURN MESSAGE BACK TO MOTOR
NEURONS.
• MOTOR NEURON = PASS MESSAGE FROM BRAIN
TO REST OF BODY FOR MUSCLE RESPONSE

• THIS COORDINATED PATHWAY IS KNOWN AS THE

REFLEX ARC
 REFLEX ARC
“ WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU STEP ON A
NAIL”?
REFLEXES ARE AUTOMATIC
THE STIMULUS (NAIL ) IS RECEIVED BY
THE SENSORY NEURONS IN THE FOOT
THIS INFO TRAVELS TO THE SPINE,
WHERE THE INTERNEURON IS
TRIGGERED
THE INTERNEURON TRANSMITS SIGNAL
TO BRAIN (THROUGH THE SPINAL
CORD)AND CARRIES MESSAGE BACK
AND STIMULATES THE MOTOR NEURON,
TO MOVE THE FOOT
 A PROGRESSIVE WAVE OF ELECTRIC AND
CHEMICAL ACTIVITY ALONG A NERVE FIBER
THAT STIMULATES OR INHIBITS THE ACTION
OF A MUSCLE, GLAND, OR OTHER NERVE
CELL

*THIS IS HOW THE INFORMATION MOVES FROM SENSORY

NEURONS TO INTERNEURON TO MOTOR NEURONS
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
 BEFORE THE STIMULUS , RESTING NEURON IS POLARIZED.

electro-chemical
difference of about -70 Na/k PUMPS
-
millivolts occurs.
 STRONG nerve permeability of the cell Na- IN
STIMULUS impulse membrane changes K= OUT

NERVE IMPULSE opening and

DEPOLARIZATION MOVE ALONG REFRACTORY
closing of ion
AXON STAGE
gates
 ION CHANNELS

• ION CHANNELS ARE PORE-FORMING MEMBRANE PROTEINS THAT

ALLOW IONS TO PASS THROUGH THE CHANNEL PORE.

• CLASSIFICATION BY GATING
• ION CHANNELS MAY BE CLASSIFIED BY GATING, I.E. WHAT OPENS AND
CLOSES THE CHANNELS. FOR EXAMPLE, VOLTAGE-GATED ION CHANNELS
OPEN OR CLOSE DEPENDING ON THE VOLTAGE GRADIENT ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE, WHILE LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNELS OPEN OR
CLOSE DEPENDING ON BINDING OF LIGANDS TO THE CHANNEL.
 VOLTAGE GATED ION CHANNEL
• VOLTAGE-GATED SODIUM CHANNELS:
• VOLTAGE-GATED CALCIUM CHANNELS:
• VOLTAGE-GATED POTASSIUM CHANNELS
• VOLTAGE-GATED PROTON CHANNELS: VOLTAGE-GATED PROTON CHANNELS
OPEN WITH DEPOLARIZATION, BUT IN A STRONGLY PH-SENSITIVE MANNER. THE
RESULT IS THAT THESE CHANNELS OPEN ONLY WHEN THE ELECTROCHEMICAL
GRADIENT IS OUTWARD, SUCH THAT THEIR OPENING WILL ONLY ALLOW
PROTONS TO LEAVE CELLS. THEIR FUNCTION THUS APPEARS TO BE ACID
EXTRUSION FROM CELLS. ANOTHER IMPORTANT FUNCTION OCCURS IN
PHAGOCYTES (E.G. EOSINOPHILS, NEUTROPHILS, MACROPHAGES) DURING THE
"RESPIRATORY BURST." WHEN BACTERIA OR OTHER MICROBES ARE ENGULFED
BY PHAGOCYTES, THE ENZYME NADPH OXIDASE ASSEMBLES IN THE MEMBRANE
AND BEGINS TO PRODUCE REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS) THAT HELP KILL
BACTERIA. NADPH OXIDASE IS ELECTROGENIC, MOVING ELECTRONS ACROSS
THE MEMBRANE, AND PROTON CHANNELS OPEN TO ALLOW PROTON FLUX TO
BALANCE THE ELECTRON MOVEMENT ELECTRICALLY.
 LIGAND-GATED
ALSO KNOWN AS IONOTROPIC RECEPTORS, THIS
GROUP OF CHANNELS OPEN IN RESPONSE TO
SPECIFIC LIGAND MOLECULES BINDING TO THE
EXTRACELLULAR DOMAIN OF THE RECEPTOR PROTEIN.
LIGAND BINDING CAUSES A CONFORMATIONAL
CHANGE IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE CHANNEL PROTEIN
THAT ULTIMATELY LEADS TO THE OPENING OF THE
CHANNEL GATE AND SUBSEQUENT ION FLUX ACROSS
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE. EXAMPLES OF SUCH
CHANNELS INCLUDE THE CATION-
 EARDRUM
Sound EAR CANAL MOVEMENT

eardrum vibrates SOUND VIBRATION

MOVEMENT OF THE
OSSICLES TO COCHLEA FLUID IN CICHLEA

AUDITORY NERVE-
HAIR CELLS BEND NEURAL SIGNALS
BRAIN
 Vaporized odor DISSOLVE
nostrils
molecules IN MUCUS
OLFACTORY
OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM
RECEPTOR NEURON

OLFACTORY BULB

BRAIN
 LOCATION:
CILIARY ANTERIOR AND
AQUEOUS
EPITHELIUM POSTERIOR
HUMOUR
CHAMBER
 FORMATION OF THE AQUEOUS
HUMOR
sympathetic nervous system

stimulation of β2 receptors by circulating epinephrine increases

flow by increasing [cAMP]

stimulation of α2 receptors by norepinephrine reduces

production by decreasing [cAMP]

• FORMATION (INFLOW)
BY THE CILIARY EPITHELIUM PRODUCES
INCREASED CL- SECRETION
AN INCREASE IN AQUEOUS HUMOR VOLUME VIA OSMOSIS
• GENERATION OF BICARBONATE BY CARBONIC ANHYDRASE REGULATES CL-
SECRETION
• DRAINAGE (OUTFLOW) ALSO OCCURS VIA TWO SYSTEMS

• CANAL OF SCHLEMM (PRIMARY

MECHANISM): CONTRACTION OF THE SPHINCTER PUPILLAE MUSCLE
(WHICH RESULTS IN MIOSIS) MOVES THE IRIS AWAY
FROM THE CANAL, INCREASING OUTFLOW
• ADMINISTRATION OF MUSCARINIC
ANTAGONISTS OR SYMPATHETIC Α1 AGONISTS (BOTH OF WHICH
CAN DILATE THE PUPIL) CAN
EXACERBATE GLAUCOMA, BY REDUCING DRAINAGE OF THE
AQUEOUS HUMOR

•
UVEOSCLERAL OUTFLOW: REABSORPTION
IS INCREASED
OF AQUEOUS HUMOR THROUGH THE CILIARY MUSCLE
BY MUSCLE RELAXATION AND FACILITATED
BY PROSTAGLANDINS (SPECIFICALLY PGF2Α), WHICH
REPRESENT AN IMPORTANT MECHANISM
OF GLAUCOMA TREATMENT
• BOTTOM LINE: BOTH CHOLINERGIC AGONISTS AND PROSTAGLANDINS ARE
USED TO TREAT GLAUCOMA, AND THEY WORK BY INCREASING OUTFLOW