Group 5

elvis.
Michael.
Russel.
 Chapter 6
–OSCILLATORS
CONTENTS
6.1 WAVEFORM GENERATORS
6.2 THE OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF OSCILLATORS
 6.1 WAVEFORM
GENERATORS
 A waveform generator is an electronic circuit designed to produce an
alternating electromotive force (e.m.f). of known frequency and waveform.
 A variety of different waveforms can be generated by these circuits, some are
mostly used, and others are of more limited application.
 The most commonly used in practice are sinusoidal, the rectangular and the
saw tooth waveforms. Sinusoidal wave forms are produced by waveform
generators known as oscillators, while both rectangular and saw tooth
waveforms can be generated by a stable multi vibrators or by blocking
oscillators.
The output waveform of a
sinusoidal oscillator
 Oscillators are designed to produce a
waveform whose amplitude and frequency
are sensibly constant with time; some circuits
are made to produce an output signal of fixed
amplitude and/or frequency, while other
circuits have their output amplitude and/or
frequency continuously variable.
THE rectangular waveform.
 The waveform has been drawn as varying between zero volts and a positive
voltage, but the inverse, i.e. between zero volts and a negative value, is
equally common.
 The MARK/SPACE RATIO of the waveform is T1/T2 and the DUTY CYCLE is
T1/(T1+T2) The-duty cycle may be a fixed quantity or, with some waveform
generators, it may be adjustable.
 The periodic time of the waveform is (T1+T2 ) and the PULSE REPETITION
FREQUENCY (P.RF.) Is the number of pulses occurring per second and is equal
to the reciprocal of the periodic time.
 If T1 is adjusted to be equal to T2 then a square waveform is obtained.
The saw-tooth waveform
 It consists of a voltage that rises linearly with time,
known as a ramp, which when it reaches its
maximum value falls rapidly to zero.
 Immediately the, voltage has fallen to zero it begins
another ramp and so on.
 Sawtooth-waveforms are employed whenever a
voltage or a current that Increases at a constant rate
is required
6.2 THE OSCILLATORY
CIRCUIT.
 The oscillatory circuit, also called the L-C circuit or tank circuit, consists
of an inductive coil of inductance L connected in parallel with a
capacitor of capacitance C. The values of L and C determines the
frequency of oscillations produced by the circuit.
 The most important point is that both the capacitor and inductor are
capable of storing energy the capacitor stores energy in its dielectric
field whenever a pd exists across its plates while the inductor stores
energy in its magnetic field whenever current flows through it.
.

If a capacitor of C farads is charged from a DC source as in the

diagram above by moving the contact to A, A potential difference
(p.d) of V volts will be developed across its terminals.
 When the capacitor is fully charged, the contact is moved to B and
a complete circuit exists and so the capacitor will discharge
through the inductor and a current I will flow.
 This current begins to flow the instant the capacitor is connected
across the inductor, and it rises rapidly to a maximum value when
the capacitor has fully discharged and there is zero voltage across
its plates.
 The flow of current in conductor, associated with the current flow
in the inductor, therefore, is a magnetic field that reaches its
maximum value at the same time as does the amperes. All the
energy originally stored in the capacitor has now disappeared
(since V = 0) and has been partly converted into magnetic energy
and partly lost as power dissipation in the resistance R of the
circuit.
 Since the p.d. across the capacitor terminals is now zero,
the current starts to fall and the magnetic field about the
inductor starts to collapse.
 As the field collapses an e.m.f. is induced in each turn of
the inductor that, according to Lenz's law, is in such a
direction as to oppose the force creating it; that is, the
total induced e.m.f. tends to keep the current flowing.
 Because the capacitor is completely discharged, further
current flow in this direction recharges it but with the
polarity opposite to what was before.
 When the magnetic field has completely collapsed, the current has fallen to zero and the
capacitor is fully re-charged to a voltage somewhat less than before, say (V -δV), where δV
is a small voltage decrement.
 Almost all of the magnetic energy has converted back to the form of electric energy
stored in the dielectric of the capacitor, some energy having again been lost as dissipation
in the circuit resistance.
 The capacitor now starts to discharge through the inductor again but this time the current
flow is in a direction opposite to what it was before.
 A magnetic field is again set up around the inductor that increases with increase in the
discharge current.
 When the capacitor is fully discharged the current starts to fall and the collapsing
magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in the inductor windings that tends to maintain the
current in its new direction.
 The capacitor is recharged with its original polarity by this current and when it is fully
charged (to a voltage less than before) one cycle of the oscillatory current has been
completed
  A CONTINUAL interchange of energy
between the capacitor and the inductor
takes place at a constant frequency, but
with the amplitude of the oscillatory
current decreasing steadily until,
eventually, the oscillation dies away.
An oscillation of this type, shown in Fig.
6.7 is known as a damped oscillation.

 The rate at which the oscillation dies away depends upon

the circuit resistance; the greater the resistance the
sooner the oscillations disappears
If energy can be supplied to the oscillatory circuit to replace
the energy lost by dissipation, an undamped oscillation can be
obtained.
An undamped oscillation is shown in Fig. 6.8, and it is clear
that the current amplitude is constant and the oscillation does
not die away but can be maintained indefinitely.
The energy supplied to the oscillatory circuit must be
sufficiently large to make good the losses and must be in
phase with the oscillation
 If energy can be supplied to the oscillatory circuit to replace
the energy lost by dissipation, an undamped oscillation can be
obtained.

 It is clear that the current amplitude is constant and the

oscillation does not die away but can be maintained
indefinitely.

 The energy supplied to the oscillatory circuit must be

sufficiently large to make good the losses and must be in
phase with the oscillation
6.3 PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION OF OSCILLAtor

– In this sub-Chapter only oscillator

circuits which produce an output
voltage of sinusoidal waveform will be
discussed
 The oscillator circuit can be made by an amplifier that
provides its own input signal, which is derived from the
output signal.
 The amplifier in this circuit uses its feedback.
 The feedback may be positive or negative .
 The feedback means a part of the output signal of the
amplifier is fed back to the input of the amplifier.
 The oscillator circuit using an amplifier can give
continuous constant amplitude oscillations.
 So when we applied voltage as the input of the amplifier the
output of the amplifier will be the multiplication of the gain of the
amplifier and the input signal
 If the voltage gain of the amplifier is Av, the output voltage is
Av*Vin
 Now the output of the amplifier is given to the feedback circuit as
the input
 Generally the feedback circuit is nothing but a frequency
selective circuit or resonant circuit and it decides what fraction of
the output signal of the amplifier is to be given to the input of the
amplifier as feedback signals.
 The feedback circuit is represented by the symbol β(beta)
 Suppose, Vi is the input applied at the terminal of the amplifier having gain A. Also, a feedback network is
used. This feedback network has the feedback fraction β. The output of the amplifier is Vo and that of the
feedback network is Vf.

 Here β basically defines the fraction of output which is provided as feedback to the input.

 Initially, Vi is applied at the terminal of the amplifier with gain A. So, at the output of the amplifier we
get,eq1'

 This voltage is then provided to the feedback network which is basically a resonant circuit in order to have
the highest feedback at a frequency.

 So, the signal achieved at the output of the feedback amplifier is given as, eq2'

 Since, Vf = βVo and Vo = AVi

 If the amplifier and feedback circuit introduces 0° phase shift. Then both feedback signal, as well as the input
signal, will be in phase with each other.

 Now, when the output of the feedback circuit is provided to the amplifier along with the input.
If the voltage gain of the amplifier is Av, the output voltage is
Av*Vin and the input voltage , so that
 In this equation, the input voltage cannot be zero as an
output voltage exists and therefore (1-βAv ) must be zero,
and the so-called loop-gain must equal unity, hence:
 βAv=1In general, both the gain Av and the feedback ratio
B are complex and hence
 This equation states the necessary requirements that
must be satisfied before a circuit will oscillate:
1. The loop gain βAv must be unity, and
2. The loop phase shift(ϕ+θ ) must be zero. (positive
feedback).
 It is cleared that the input of the oscillator circuit does
not need all over the time during the operation of the
oscillator
 The input is needed for starting the oscillation and once
the oscillation is started the input can be removed or in
other words the oscillator can give output without input.