• Pressure: The amount of force applied to a surface

or over it . It is measured as force per unit area.

• Unit of Pressure
In British unit: Pounds,
In Metric (SI) unit: Newton per square meter

1 newton per square meter (1 N/m^2)=1 Pascal

• Different Types of Pressure:
a) Gauge Pressure: A gauge that indicates zero at atmospheric
pressure, measures the difference between actual and
atmospheric pressure. (absolute pressure minus atmospheric
pressure)
b) Absolute pressure: Absolute pressure is actual total pressure
(including atmosphere) acting on a surface. (gauge pressure plus
atmospheric pressure)
c) Differential Pressure: The gauge pressure is the difference
between the absolute pressure of the fluid and the atmospheric
pressure.

a) Static pressure and velocity pressure: When the fluid is in

equilibrium, the pressure at a particular point is identical in all
directions and independent of orientation. This is called static
pressure. Velocity pressure is the difference between the total
pressure and static pressure.
Velocity pressure= Total pressure –Static Pressure
Method of Pressure Measurement
• Manometer: a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited
to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer
is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic
instruments.

• Different Type of Manometer:

a) U-Tube manometer
b) Well type manoneter
c) Barometer
d) Inclined manometer
e) Micromanometre
U-tube Manometer
• Simplest form of manometer, suitable
for liquid pressure
• It consist of transparent (glass) U
shaped tube and partially filled with
liquid (commonly mercury or water)
• One end of the tube is connected to
one pressure tap and the other end
connected to the other pressure tap ( or
may be left open to the atmosphere)
• For low pressure water is used as the
liquid and for high pressure mercury is
used as liquid
• Mercury is 14 times as heavy as water.
Working principle
• The difference in liquid levels from
one side to the other side indicates
the difference in pressure.
• (p1-p2)=(ρ-ρ1)(h1-h2)g
• P=(ρ-ρ1)hg
• ρ= density of fluid in U-tube
• ρ1= density of fluid whose pressure
is being measured
• h=(h1-h2), difference in fluid levels
• g= acceleration due to gravity
 Elastic Pressure Transducers
This type of pressure transducers use elastic
material as primary sensing elements.
Examples
a) Bourdon Tube
b) Bellows
c) Diapharagm
C-type Bourdon Tube
• Most simplest pressure
transducer
• Range: from 0-15psig to 0-
100000 psig.
• Consists of long thin walled
cylinder, sealed at one end
made from materials such as
phosphorus, bronze, steel and
attached to the pointer
• Other end is open for
application of pressure which
is to be measured.
 Working principle
• As the fluid enters the Bourdon tube it tries to
change the shape causes the pointer to move
over the scale.
• The tip of the Bourdon tube is connected to
the segmental lever to hold pointer.
• Bourdon tube are generally made in three
shapes: a) C-type, b) Helical type, c) Spiral
type
• Advantages
1) Cost is low
2) Simple construction
3) Tubes are available in huge variety of range
4) Adaptable to the transducer design for electronic
instruments
5) High accuracy

• Disadvantages
1) Low spring gradient
2) Susceptible to shock and vibration
3) Susceptible to hysteresis.
 Diaphragm pressure transducer
• Diaphragm is a common pressure transducer specifically for
low range.
• It can be in the form of flat, corrugated or dished plated.
• Metallic diaphragm consists of thin flexible
material such as brass or bronze. A pointer is
attached to the diaphragm .
• The pressure against the effective area of the
diaphragm causes deflection.
• This gauge is capable of working in any position
and is portable.
• The slack diaphragm gauge can use for low
atmospheric pressure, range around 0.01-0.40
mm Hg (torr).
• Advantages
1) Cost is moderate.
2)adaptable to absolute and differential
pressure
3) Good linearity
4) Small in size
• Disadvantages
1) Lack of vibration and shock resistance
2) Difficult to repair
3) Limited to relatively low pressure.
Bellows
• The bellows are made of an alloy
which is ductile, has high strength
and retain its properties over long
use.
• Generally used for the range
down to 155.1 hg.
• It is more sensitive then Bourdon
tube glass

• For larger static pressure (upto

2000 psig) and larger differential
pressure (upto 50 psi), bellows of
differential gauges are extensively
used.
 Level Measurement
• Level Measurement: the act of establishing
the height of a liquid surface in reference to a
zero point.
• Units of Level
– Feet (meters)
– Gallons (liters)
– Pounds (kilogram)
– Cubic volume (ft^3, m^3)
• Methods of Liquid Level Measurement:
There are few methods used in industries for
measuring liquid level

– Direct Methods
• Hook-type level indicator
• Sight glass
• Float type
– Indirect Methods
• Resistive
• Inductive
• Capacitive
– Ultrasonic Methods
 Direct Methods
• Sight Glass: It is used for the continuous
indication of liquid level within tank or vessel.
 Construction and working
• A sight glass instrument consists of a
graduated tube of toughened glass
which is connected to the interior of
the tank at the bottom in which the
water level is required.
• Working: Figure shows a sight glass for
open tank in which the liquid level in
the sight glass matches the level of
liquid in the tank. As the level of liquid
in the tank rises and falls, the level in
the sight glass also rises and falls
accordingly. Thus by measuring the
level in the sight glass we can measure
the level of tank.
To measure the level of liquid
under pressure or vacuum, the
sight glass must be connected to
the tank at the top as well as at
the bottom.
Range:
The standard practice is not to go for a glass tube of more than 900mm
length. In case the height of the tank is more than 900mm,two or
more sight glass level gauges are provided at different level.

Advantages:
1. Direct reading is possible
2. It can measure up to 316 ˚C and 10,000psi
3. Glassless design are available in numerous material for corrosion
resistance.

Disadvantages:
1. Tank location for reading the level of liquid not always convenient.
2. Since sight glasses are located outside of the tank, the liquid of
the sight glass may freeze in the cold weather even though the
liquid of tank does not, and thus it may cause error.
3. Heavy, viscous liquids or liquids containing material which fall out
of solution and clog the tube cannot be measured satisfactorily by
a sight glass.
4. Accuracy and readability depends on cleanliness of glass and fluid.
 Float Type
• Float operated level indicator is used to measure liquid levels
in tank in which a float rests on the surface of liquid and
follows the changing level of liquid. The movement of the
float is transmitted to a pointer through a suitable mechanism
which indicates the level on a calibrated scale.
 Construction and working
• It consists of float made of stainless steel or copper or
phosphorus bronze with nickel plating to avoid rusting which
rest over the surface area of the liquid.

• The float movement is transmitted to the pointer by a

stainless steel or phosphorus bronze flexible cable wound
around a pulley and the pointer indicates liquid level.
Working:
1. When the liquid level rises or falls a buoyant force equal to
weight of the displaced liquid is available, it pushes the float
up or down.
2. The float movement is transmitted to a pointer through a
suitable mechanism.
3. It indicates the level on a calibrated scale.
• Advantages
– Economical
– Reliable designs
– They have high accuracy
– Operated at large temperature range
– Easy to maintain
• Disadvantages
– Limited to moderate pressures
– Float design should be considered for liquids with
suspensions
 Indirect method
• Here the liquid level position converted to the
electrical signal.
– Resistive method
– Inductive
– Capacitive method
The electrical transducers are used to measure
liquid level
 Resistive type of level indicator
• This is an electrical method where liquid level position
is converted in to an electrical signal.

Working principle:
1. The float acts as a primary transducer that converts
liquid level variation into a suitable displacement.
2. This displacement is sensed by the secondary
transducer such as a resistive potentiometric device.
3. The resistive potentiometer converts displacement
into electrical signal.
Fixed resistive type of level indicator
• A number of contact rods are placed at
various level
• Mercury is used as a conductor
• As head ‘h’ increases, the level of mercury
rises above the datum
• It result in shorting of successive resistors R
• The ammeter reading increases
• It indicate the value directly
• Advantages
– Continuous record of level is possible with addition of
contact rods
– Uses low voltage to eliminate danger to the operator s
and to prevent arcing at the contact point
– Signal can be transmitted to any desired point
– Simple to calibrate.
• Disadvantages
– Unsafe to use this transducer in explosive atmosphere
due to arcing at the contact point
– Large number of contact rods are required
– The contact rods are corroded by corrosive liquids.
– Any changes in the conductivity of the liquid causes
serious errors
 Capacitance level indicator

• This is an electrical method

• Types of capacitive methods
– Variable area method
– Capacitive voltage divider method
– Variable dielectric constant method
 Working principle
• The operation is based upon the equation of parallel
plate capacitor given by
C=ε A/D
C=capacitance in Farad
ε= dielectric constant
A= area of plate, in m^2
D=distance between two plates, in m.

Therefore if A and D constant, then the capacitance is

directly proportional to the dielectric constant, and this
principle is used in the capacitance level indicator
Variable Area Method
 Construction
• The electrical conducting container holds the
materials.
• A metal rod completely covered by insulating
material is placed inside the container
• The metal rod and the container walls form
the two plates of the capacitor
• The insulating material forms acts as the
dielectric medium.
 Working
• When the level of the liquid in the tank rises the
capacitance varies linearly with the height of the
material
• The relationship between level of liquid and the
capacitance is given by
C=2πεh/loge(d2/d1)
where ε=permittivity of the insulator; F/m
h=height of the material; m
d1=diameter of the metal rod; m
d2=diameter of the insulator; m
Capacitive voltage divider method
Variable dielectric constant method
Ultrasonic level gauge