Fundamental Principles

in DC Circuits
-MMARTIN
RESISTANCE
Electric Resistance (R) – it is the property of a material that limits the amount of flow of current and converts
electric energy to heat energy. Its unit is the Ohm (Ω) named in honor of the German Physicist Georg Simon
Ohm (1787 – 1854).
Factors affecting resistance:
1. Nature of the material
2. Length of the material
3. Cross-sectional area of the material
4. Temperature

𝐋 𝑽 𝐋𝟐
𝐑=𝛒 𝐑=𝛒 𝟐 𝐑=𝛒 𝐕= 𝐀×𝐋
Where: 𝐀 of the material 𝑨
R = resistance 𝐕
A = cross-sectional area of the material
ρ = resistivity or specific resistance of the material
L = length of the material
V = volume of the material
Resistivity – it is the resistance offered to a current if passed between the opposite faces of a unit cube of the
material. It is measured in ohm-m.
Sample Problems
1.A coil consists of 2,000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional
area of 0.8 mm2. The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of
copper is 0.02 μΩ-m. Find the resistance of the coil.

Solution:
𝑐𝑚
𝐿 = 2,000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 × 80 = 160,000 𝑐𝑚
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
1𝑚
𝐿 = 160,000 𝑐𝑚 × = 1,600 𝑚
100 𝑐𝑚
2
1𝑚
𝐴 = 0.8 𝑚𝑚2 × = 8 × 10−7 𝑚2
1,000 𝑚𝑚
𝐿 1,600 𝑚
𝑅=𝜌 𝑅 = 0.02 × 10−6 Ω − 𝑚
𝐴 8 × 10−7 𝑚2

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎 𝛀
Sample Problems
2.A heater element is made of nichrome wire having resistivity equal to
100 x 10-8 Ω-m. The diameter of the wire is 0.4 mm. Calculate the length
of the wire required to get a resistance of 40 Ω.

Solution:
𝜋 2 𝐿 𝐿
𝐴= 𝑑 𝑅=𝜌 𝑅=𝜌 𝜋
𝐴 2
4 4𝑑

4𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝜋𝑑 2

4 100 × 10−8 𝐿
40 =
𝜋 0.4 × 10−3 2

𝑳 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎
Sample Problems
3.The resistance of a conductor 1 mm2 in cross-section and 20 m long is
0.346 Ω. Determine the specific resistance of the conductor material.

Solution:
2
2
1𝑚
𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝑚 × = 1 × 10−6 𝑚2
1,000 𝑚𝑚
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
20
0.346 = 𝜌 𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 − 𝒎
1 × 10−6
 Sample Problems
4.A wire of length 1 m has a resistance of 2 Ω. Obtain the resistance if
specific resistance is doubled, diameter is doubled and the length is
made three times of the first.

Solution:
𝑅1 = 2 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 𝜌2 = 2𝜌1 𝑑2 = 2𝑑1 𝐿2 = 3𝐿1 = 3 1 = 3 𝑚
𝐿1 = 1 𝑚

4𝜌𝐿 4𝜌1 𝐿1 4𝜌2 𝐿2

𝑅= 𝑅1 = ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (1) 𝑅2 = ⟶ 𝑒𝑞. (2)
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑12 𝜋𝑑22
Dividing eq. (2) by (1)
4𝜌2 𝐿2 2 2
𝑅2 𝜌2 𝐿2 𝑑1 𝑅2 2𝜌1 3 𝑑1
𝑅2 𝜋𝑑22 = =
= 𝑅1 𝜌1 𝐿1 𝑑2 2 𝜌1 1 2𝑑1
𝑅1 4𝜌1 𝐿1
𝜋𝑑12
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑 𝛀
Sample Problems
5.Determine the resistivity of the material of conductor of volume 0.05 m3,
length 300 meters and resistance 0.0306 Ω.

Solution:
𝐿2
𝑅=𝜌
𝑉

300 2
0.0306 = 𝜌
0.05

𝝆 = 𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 − 𝒎
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN RESISTANCE
The effect of variations of temperature on the
resistance of all materials is generally are as
follows:
• Resistance of most of the metallic 𝐑𝟏 𝐓 + 𝐭𝟏
conductors usually increases with rise in 𝐑 𝟐 = 𝐑 𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝛂𝟏 𝐭 𝟐 − 𝐭 𝟏 ] =
𝐑𝟐 𝐓 + 𝐭𝟐
temperature.
• Resistance of non-conductors or insulator
usually decreases with rise in 𝟏
temperature. 𝟏
𝛂𝟏 = 𝐓 =
𝐓 + 𝐭𝟏 𝛂𝟎

Where:
R2 = resistance at temperature t2, Ω
R1 = resistance at temperature t1, Ω
t1 = initial temperature, °C
t2 = final temperature, °C
T = inferred zero resistance, °C
= temperature when resistance of a certain
material is zero
α = temperature coefficient of resistance, /°C
= increase in resistance per ohm per °C rise in
temperature
α0 = temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°C
 Sample Problems
1. A copper conductor has its specific resistance of 1.6 x 10-6 ohm-cm at
0°C and a resistance temperature coefficient of 1/254.5 per °C at 20°C.
Find (a) the specific resistance and (b) the resistance temperature
coefficient at 60°C.

Solution:
(a) For the specific resistance at 60°C

𝜌60 = 𝜌0 [1 + 𝛼0 𝑡60 − 𝑡0 ]
1 1 1
𝛼20 =
1
=
1 𝛼0 = 4.26 × 10−3 /℃
+ 𝑡20 254.5 + 20
𝛼0 𝛼0
𝜌60 = 1.6 × 10−6 [1 + 4.26 × 10−3 60 − 0 ]

𝝆𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝜴 − 𝒄𝒎
(b) For the resistance temperature coefficient at 60°C

1 1
𝛼60 = 𝛼60 =
1 1
+ 𝑡60 + 60
𝛼0 4.26 × 10−3

𝜶𝟔𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /℃
Sample Problems
2. Two coils connected in series have resistances of 600 Ω and 300 Ω with
temperature coefficient of 0.1% and 0.4% respectively at 20°C. (a) Find the
resistance of the combination at a temperature of 50°C. (b) What is the
effective temperature coefficient of the combination?

Solution:

(a) For the resistance of the combination at a temperature of 50°C

𝑅50𝑎 = 𝑅20𝑎 [1 + 𝛼20𝑎 𝑡50 − 𝑡20 ]

𝑅50𝑎 = 600 [1 + 0.001 50 − 20 ] 𝑅50𝑎 = 618 Ω

𝑅50𝑏 = 𝑅20𝑏 [1 + 𝛼20𝑏 𝑡50 − 𝑡20 ]

𝑅50𝑏 = 300 [1 + 0.004 50 − 20 ] 𝑅50𝑏 = 336 Ω

𝑅50𝑇 = 𝑅50𝑎 + 𝑅50𝑏

𝑅50𝑇 = 618 + 336 𝑹𝟓𝟎𝑻 = 𝟗𝟓𝟒 𝜴

Sample Problems
Solution:

(b) For the effective temperature coefficient of the combination

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛽 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 effective temperature coefficient of the combination

𝑅20𝑇 = 𝑅20𝑎 + 𝑅20𝑏 𝑅20𝑇 = 600 + 300

𝑅20𝑇 = 900 Ω

𝑅50𝑇 = 𝑅20𝑇 [1 + 𝛽 𝑡50 − 𝑡20 ]

954 = 900 [1 + 𝛽 50 − 20 ]

𝜷 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐/℃
Sample Problems
3. Two materials A and B have resistance temperature coefficients of
0.004 and 0.0004 respectively at a given temperature. In what
proportion must A and B be joined in series to produce a circuit having
a temperature coefficient of 0.001?

Solution:

𝑅𝐵 0.003 𝑅𝐵
= =5
𝑅𝐴 0.0006 𝑅𝐴

𝑹𝑩 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝟓 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝑨