everybody in a population participates. All are given equal opportunity or chance to become a respondent. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING- is characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the same for every member of the population. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING- it follows specific steps and procedures such as: 1. Divide the number of elements in the population by the desired sample size. 2. Choose a random number between one and the value you obtained from Step 1 3. Starting with the number you picked, you take every tenth (10th) from step 1. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING- the population is first divided into two or more mutually exclusive categories based on your variables of interest in research study. The population is organized into homogeneous subsets before drawing the samples. With stratified random sampling, the population is divided into subpopulation called STRATA. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING- is preferred by researchers who want to study subpopulations where categorization of homogeneous characteristics of each stratum is being considered.
STEPS TO FOLLOW: 1. Get the population of the school per level and make a record of it. 2. Divide each number of students per level by the total population and then multiply by the desired sample size. CLUSTER SAMPLING- is used when the target respondents in research study is spread across a geographical location. It is classified into: SINGLE-STAGE CLUSTER- all members from each of the selected clusters are used in the sampling process. TWO-STAGE CLUSTER- a subset of elements within each selected cluster is randomly selected for inclusion in the sample. MULTI-STAGE CLUSTER- more than two steps are taken in selecting clusters from clusters. It takes a large population into account. This sampling method are not chosen randomly, but purposely, that is why they are susceptible to bias. It is used if the researcher have no choice and no available respondents. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING- This is a method of selecting samples that are available and are capable of participating in a research study on a current issue. It is sometimes called haphazard or availability sampling. It could be used in conducting a survey or interview to obtain a quick response of public opinion on an issue. SNOWBALL SAMPLING- is a technique where the researcher identifies a key informant about a research of interest and then ask that respondent to refer or identify another respondent who can participate in the study. The identification of the samples follows a multiplier effect, that is, one person is asked to refer the researcher to another respondents and so on. This technique is applicable when researchers find difficulty in locating special numbers of a population. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING- sometimes called judgemental or subjective sampling employs a procedure in which samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may involve members of a limited group of population. QUOTA SAMPLING- is gathering a representative sample from a group based on certain characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher. Usually the population is divided into specific groups. VOLUNTARY SAMPLING- is selecting people who are very much willing to participate as respondents in the research project. TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA Textual presentations use words, statements or paragraphs with numerals, numbers or measurements to describe data. They can be used independently to describe the data when there are very few quantities or numbers. They can also be used to compare data using paragraphs for the discussion. There are 42,036 barangays in the Philippines. The largest barangay in terms of population size is Barangay 176 in Caloocan City with 247 thousand persons. It is followed by Commonwealth in Quezon City (198, 285) and Batasan Hills in Quezon City (161, 409). Twelve other barangays posted a population size of more than a hundred thousand persons. TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA
Tables present clear and organized data. A table
must be clear and simple but complete. A good table should include the following parts: Table number and title-These are placed above the table. The title is usually written right after the table number. Caption subhead- This refers to columns and rows Body- It contains all the data under each subhead Source- It indicates if the data is secondary and it should be acknowledged. TABLE 1 Ages of Individuals in Various Employment Sectors AGE GROUP Employment Sector 18-25 26-35 36-45 Agriculture 3 8 12 Education 10 15 15 Health 15 28 35 Law 3 5 6 Manufacturing 15 23 32 Retail 30 12 8 Others 25 16 10 TABULAR PRESENTATION WITH TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
An information sheet is distributed to 300 junior
and senior high school students of a certain school to gather data or background of students in terms of sex, grade level and socio-economic status as measured by monthly family income. A profile analysis of the student’s background is provided for each tabular presentation of profile variables to illustrate textual analysis. TABLE 2 Profile of Students According to Gender
GENDER FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Male 120 40% Female 180 60% Total 300 100%
ANALYSIS: Among the 300 respondents, 120
(40%) are males and 180 (60%) are females TABLE 3 Profile of Students According to Grade Level GRADE LEVEL FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE Grade 7 60 20% Grade 8 54 18% Grade 9 51 17% Grade 10 45 15% Grade 11 90 30% Total 300 100% ANALYSIS: Of the survey’s 300 respondents, 60 (20%) are grade 7, 54 (18%) are Grade 8, 51 (17%) are in Grade 9 and 45 (15%) are Grade 10. This constitutes enrolment in Junior High School. Enrolees entering Senior High School in Grade 11 constitute 90 m(30%) of the total school enrolment. GRAPHICAL METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA A graph or chart portrays the visual presentation of data using symbols such as lines, dots, bars or slices. It depicts the trend of certain set of measurements or shows comparison between to or more sets of data or quantities. Charts and graphs are very useful in simplifying the presentation of research reports. They help students and researchers LINE GRAPH
It is a graphical presentation of data that shows a continuous change or trend. It may show an ascending or descending trend DOUBLE LINE GRAPH It has two lines connecting points to show continuous change in the data over time. A double line graph includes a key, which represents information, event and situation being observed. BAR GRAPH OR BAR CHART It uses bars to compare categories of data. It may be drawn vertically or horizontally. PIE GRAPH OR CIRCLE GRAPH It is usually used to show how parts of a whole compare to each other and to the whole. The entire circle represents the total, and the parts are proportional to the amount of the total they Gives a picture of the relationship between variables • Perfect Positive Relationship • Perfect Negative Relationship • Low Negative Relationship • Very High Positive Relationship It is a relationship between two variables. A. LINEAR CORRELATION- this means that a change in one variable is at a constant rate with respect to the change in the second variables. 1. Direct- for every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding increase in the second variable. 2. Inverse- for every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding decrease in the second variable. It is a relationship between two variables. B. CURVILINEAR CORRELATION- this means that a change in one variable is not at a fixed rate. It may be increasing or decreasing with respect to the change in the other variable. It is a relationship between dependent variable and two or more independent variables is usually measured.
A. NON-LINEAR CORRELATION- same as with the curvilinear, the only difference it that more than two variables are involved. It is a relationship between dependent variable and two or more independent variables is usually measured.
B. JOINT CORRELATION- the
variable and two or more variables is changed with the addition of another independent variable. This is a relative measure of relationship between dependent variable and a particular independent variable, without considering the effect of the other independent variables under study. It is necessary to obtain the value of the extent of relationship between to sets of items. The values of the coefficient of correlation ranges between +1 to -1. Zero represents no relationship. This measure was first derived by a British statistician named Karl Pearson. It measures the linear relationship between two variables. 1. POSITIVE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT- means that individual obtaining high scores in the first variable tend to obtain low scores in a second variables. 2. NEGATIVE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT- means that for every increase in one variable, there is a corresponding decrease on a second variables. Or a decrease in one variable brings about an increase on the second variable. 3. ABSOLUTE VALUE OF THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT- indicates the extent of the relationship. r of 0.7 and above indicates a very high correlation r around 0.5 may be interpreted as substantial r of 0.3 and below indicates a low relationship between two variables being measured. It is the statistics being used based on ranks or position. It represents the extent to which the same individuals or events occupy the same relative position on two variables. Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure for prediction studies. It is a prediction when a variable (Y) is dependent on a second variable (X) based on the regression equation of a given set of data. It is concerned with finding an equation that uses the known values of one or more variables, called the independent or predictor variables, to estimate the unknown value of quantitative variable called the dependent or criterion. General form of linear function is Y=a+bX a= is called the Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when X is equal to zero) b= is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate of change of Y per unit change in X) The line that describes the statistical relationship between X and Y is called the regression line. It is a straight line that attempts to predict the relationship between points also known as line of best fit. establishes the possible causation of charges in one variable by changes in other variables; predicts or estimate the value of a variable given the values of other variables;
imposes a line of the best fit to time series
historical model (Mc Guigan, 2011) POSITIVE LINEAR RELATIONSHIP- when b>0, Y increases as X increases. In thin case, we say that Y is directly or positively related to X. NEGATIVE LINEAR RELATIONSHIP- when b<0, Y decreases as X increases, and we say that Y is inversely or negatively related to X. NO RELATIONSHIP- when b=0, Y is a constant and is equal to the y-intercept a. This implies that there is no change in Y whatever X value is.
