Unit-V: Metal Joining Processes

UNIT-V
METAL JOINING PROCESSES
prepared by A.SUBRAHMANYAM
What is Welding process?
– Welding is a materials joining process which produces
coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure
or by the application of pressure alone, and with or
without the use of filler material.
– Welding is used for making permanent joints.

– It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames,
railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture,
boilers, general repair work and ship building.
Types of welding
• Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated
to a plastic state and forced together by
external pressure
(Ex) Resistance welding
• Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten
state and allowed to solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding
Classification of welding processes
(i). Arc welding • iv)Thermit Welding
• Carbon arc • (v)Solid State Welding
• Metal arc – Friction
• Metal inert gas – Ultrasonic
• Tungsten inert gas – Diffusion
• Plasma arc – Explosive
• Submerged arc • (vi)Newer Welding
• Electro-slag – Electron-beam
(ii). Gas Welding – Laser
• Oxy-acetylene
• Air-acetylene • (vii)Related Process
• Oxy-hydrogen – Oxy-acetylene cutting
(iii). Resistance Welding – Arc cutting
• Butt – Hard facing
• Spot – Brazing
• Seam – Soldering
• Projection
• Percussion
Welding Terminology
Backing: It is the material support provided at the
root side of weld to aid in control of penetration.
Base Metal: The metal to be joined or cut is termed
as base metal.
Bead/Weld Bead: Metal added during single pass of
weld. It appears as a separate metal from base
metal.
Crater: In arc welding, it is the impression in the weld
metal pool at the point where the arc strikes the
base metal.
Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is
deposited per unit time. Units Kg/hr.
• Fillet Weld: The metal fused into the corner of a
joint made of two pieces placed at approximately
90 degrees.
• Penetration: It is the depth up to which the weld
metal combines with base metal as measured
from top.
• Puddle: The portion of weld joint that is melted by
heat of welding.
• Root: It is the point where the two pieces to be
joined are nearest.
• Tack Weld: A small weld, generally used to
temporarily hold the two pieces together during
actual welding.
• Toe of weld: It is the junction between weld
face and base metal.
• Weld face: It is the Exposed surface of the weld.
• Weld Pass: It is the single movement of the
weld torch along the length of joint.
Weld joints
• The commonly used weld joints are lap joint,
butt joint, corner joint, edge joint and T joint.
• The lap joints are employed on plates having
thickness less than 3mm.
• In butt welds, the plate edges don’t require
bevelling if the plate thickness less than 5mm.
• If the plate thickness is 5mm to 12.5 mm the
edges should be bevelled to U or V groove.
• The plates having thickness above 12.5 mm
should have a V or U groove on both sides.
WELD POSITIONS
GAS WELDING
• Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler
material and method of moving torch.
• The temperature generated during the process is 33000c
• When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the
torch combines with molten metal and forms oxides, results
defective weld
• Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides
• Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium
and borax.
• Flux can be applied as paste, powder,liquid.solid coating or gas.
GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2(black color)
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2(Maroon color)
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of
the work pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
Oxy-Acetylene welding
C2H2+02 2CO+H2+448 KJ/mol
4CO+302+2H2 4CO2+2H2O+812 KJ/mol

TYPES OF FLAMES
Neutral flame is obtained by supplying equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
It has two sharply defined zones.
i)An inner luminous cone(32000c)
ii)An outer cone of bluish color(12500c)
• Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron
Oxidizing flame is formed when oxygen volume is more than acetylene. The
inner cone becomes shorter and giving rise to higher tip
temperatures(33000c)
• Used for welding brass and bronze
Carburizing flame contains acetylene in excess proportion, having an

intermediate red color cone in between inner white cone and outer blue
flame. Tip temperature reduced to 29000c
• Used for welding of non-ferrous, hard surface materials.
Oxy-Hydrogen welding
• In Oxy-Hydrogen welding(OHW) Hydrogen combines
with oxygen to generate steam and attains a flame
temperature of 28700c.
• Since welding is performed in open atmosphere ,
atmospheric oxygen accounts for the burning of
remaining hydrogen.
• This gives rise to protective preheating flame, which
reduces the flame temperature. Due to this OHW is
slow process.
• OHW is used for welding thin sheets and metals/alloys
with low melting point.
Gas welding
Advantages • 6) Can also be used for
• 1)Does not require electricity; preheating, cutting metal, case
• 2) The equipment is portable, hardening, soldering and
easy to transport; annealing.
• 3) Welder has considerable Limitations
control over the rate of heat
input, the temperature of the • 1)Acetylene becomes extremely
weld zone, and the oxidizing or dangerous if used above 15
reducing potential of the welding pounds pressure. Pure acetylene
atmosphere; is self-explosive if stored in the
• 4) Oxyacetylene process is ideally free state under a pressure of
suited to the welding of thin
sheet, tubes, and small diameter 29.4 pounds per square inch (psi);
pipe. It is also used for repair • 2) The process is typically slower
work, maintenance and in body than the electrical arc-welding
shops;
processes;
• 5) Dissimilar metals can easily be
joined; • 3)More safety is recommended in
gas welding;
• 4) Acetylene and oxygen are
expensive gases;
Gas cutting
Electric arc Welding
• A group of fusion welding processes that use an electric
arc to produce the heat required for melting the metal
and filler material.
• Common Electric Arc Welding Processes
• 1. MMAW (Manual Metal Arc Welding)
• 2. GMAW (Gas metal arc welding)
• 3. CAW (Carbon arc welding)
• 4. GTAW (Gas tungsten arc welding)
• 5.SAW(Submerged Arc Welding)
• 6.PAW(Plasma Arc Welding)
• 7.AHW(Atomic Hydrogen Welding)
• 8.SW(Stud arc Welding)
• 9.Fire Cracker Welding
Arc Welding procedure
• The arc welding is a fusion
welding process in which the
heat required to fuse the
metal is obtained from an
electric arc between the base
metal and an electrode.
• The electric arc is produced
when two conductors are
touches together and then
separated by a small gap of 2
to 4 mm, such that the current
continues to flow, through the
air. The temperature produced
by the electric arc is about
4000°C to 6000°C.
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
(Shielded Metal arc welding)
• Manual metal arc welding became synonymous with coated
electrodes.
• When an arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode) and
the work piece, both the rod and work piece surface melt to
form a weld pool.
• Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on the rod will
form gas and slag which protects the weld pool from the
surrounding atmosphere. The slag will solidify and cool and
must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is
complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited).
• The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced
before a new electrode needs to be inserted in the holder.
Weld penetration is low and the quality of the weld deposit
is highly dependent on the skill of the welder
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
• Electrodes can be
operated with AC and DC
power supplies. Not all
DC electrodes can be
operated on AC power
sources, however AC
electrodes may be used
on either AC or DC.
Electrode Coatings
• Cellulosic(cellulose)
• Rutile (titanium oxide)
• Basic(calcium carbonate )
Advantages of Shielded Disadvantages of Shielded
Metal Arc Welding Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):
(SMAW): • The process is
• Simple, portable and discontinuous due to
inexpensive equipment; limited length of the
• Wide variety of metals, electrodes;
welding positions and • Weld may contain slag
electrodes are inclusions;
applicable; • Fumes make difficult
• Suitable for outdoor the process control.
applications.
CARBON ARC WELDING
• Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in
which heat is generated by an electric arc struck
between an carbon electrode(Graphite) and the
work piece. The arc heats and melts the work pieces
edges, forming a joint.
Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding process.
If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc
Welding. End of the rod is held in the arc zone. The
molten rod material is supplied to the weld pool.
Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool
protection depending on type of welded metal.
• Modification of Carbon
Arc Welding is Twin
Carbon Electrode Arc
Welding, utilizing arc
struck between two
carbon electrodes.
Work piece is not a part
of welding electric
circuit.
• In Twin Carbon Electrode
Arc Welding, therefore
the welding torch may be
moved from one work
piece to other without
extinguishing the arc.
Carbon Arc Welding has been replaced by Tungsten Inert Gas Arc
Welding (TIG, GTAW) in many applications.
• Advantages of Carbon Arc • Disadvantages of Carbon

Welding: Arc Welding:
• Low cost of equipment • Unstable quality of the

and welding operation; weld (porosity);
• High level of operator skill • Carbon of electrode
is not required; contaminates weld
• The process is easily material with carbides.
automated;
• Low distortion of work
piece.
Tungsten Inert Gas welding
TUNGSTON INERT GAS WELDING
• In the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) metals
are fused together by heating them by an electric
arc established between a non-consumable (does
not melt) tungsten electrode and the work piece.
• A filler metal may not be used depending on the
design of the joint. The molten metal, tungsten
electrode and the welding zone are shielded from
the atmosphere (the air around it ) by a stream of
inert gas through the welding torch.
• The resulting welds have the same chemical
integrity as the original base metal.
• Weld pool temperatures can approach 2500 °C
(4530 °F). An inert gas sustains the arc and
protects the molten metal from atmospheric
contamination. The inert gas is normally argon,
helium, or a mixture of helium and argon.
• The tungsten electrode is coated with Thorium
oxide(1 to 2%) or Zirconium oxide(0.15 to 0.4%)
• Pure tungsten electrodes are only used for less
currents.
• Fundamentally, there are but three choices of
welding current:
 DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN)
 DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE (DCEP)
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
• The straight polarity DCEN (direct current,
electrode negative),where the torch is connected
to the negative pole and the work piece is
connected to the positive pole, is used for welding
steel, stainless steel, nickel and many other metals.
• The reversed polarity DCEP (direct current,
electrode positive),where the torch is connected to
the positive pole and the work piece is connected
to the negative pole, is used only on materials
needing shallow penetration.
• Alternating current is used for welding aluminum
and magnesium.
APPLICATIONS
The TIG Welding or GTAW process can be used to weld almost all metals and
metal alloys in use today. It is a particularly effective and economic way for
welding light gague metals (under 3mm thickness).
Advantages
Limitations
• PRODUCES HIGH-QUALITY,
LOW-DISTORTION WELDS • PRODUCES LOWER
DEPOSITION RATES THAN
• FREE OF THE SPATTER CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
ASSOCIATED WITH OTHER ARC WELDING PROCESSES.
METHODS
• TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS IF THE
• GIVES PRECISE CONTROL OF ELECTRODE IS ALLOWED TO
WELDING HEAT CONTACT THE WELD POOL
• CAN BE USED WITH A RANGE • LOW TOLERANCE FOR
OF POWER SUPPLIES CONTAMINANTS ON FILLER OR
BASE METALS
• CONTAMINATION OR
POROSITY, CAUSED BY
COOLANT LEAKAGE FROM
WATER-COOLED TORCHES
MIG WELDING
Gas Metal Arc Welding
(GMAW / “MIG”)
• The gas metal arc welding (GMAW / “MIG”)
process utilizes an electric arc established
between a consumable wire electrode and the
work piece.
• A continuous wire electrode is fed through the
welding gun to the site of the weld, while a
separate tank of inert gas provides a shield around
the site of the weld. The gas prevents external
influences from weakening the integrity of the
weld during and after the welding process.
• GMAW provides a considerable increase in weld
metal deposition rates compared to TIG or SMAW.
• The power supply is constant voltage type. The
current from the machine is changed by rate of
wire feeding
• Normally DCEP are used to increase metal
deposition rate, stable arc.
• DCEN is used for welding steels with electrode
wire coated with calcium & titanium oxide
mixtures.
• Advantages • Limitations
• The GMAW process is a • The welding machine itself
Low-Hydrogen process that is more complex then the
makes it good for welding SMAW power supplies,
on materials that which leads to an increase
are susceptible to hydrogen in equipment costs.
cracking. • Due to the size of the
• There is very little slag GMAW Gun it makes it hard
produce so it's post weld to reach into smaller areas.
cleaning is minimal. • Also there is a lot of heat
• Being that the electrode is a that is radiated off the
continuous wire it allows for process that can cause
long welds without the discomfort.
need to stop. • The Shielding Gas can be
• The Process is Capable of blown away from the weld
welding Dissimilar metals. pool causing many issues.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
• SAW is a automatic process developed primarily for the
production of high quality butt welds in thicker plates.
• Submerged-arc welding (SAW) involves the formation of an arc
between a continuously fed wire and the work piece.
• A blanket of powdered flux creates a protective gas shield and a
slag for the weld zone.
• Shielding gas is not required.
• The arc is submerged beneath the flux blanket and is not
normally visible during welding.
• Granular fusible flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese
oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds.
• The electrode is a consumable bare wire which
is either single or sometimes double wire.
• The “Leading electrode” given supply in peak
and “Trailing electrode” given zero supply.
• The power supply DCEN is preferred when
maximum penetration is desirable. Bead shape
is also the best.
• DCEP is used for high deposition and
penetration.
• AC power supply minimizes arc blow and
penetration rate is moderate.
Advantages Limitations
 Welding is carried out without  Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg alloys, Pb
sparks, smoke, flash or spatter. and Zn cannot be welded by this
process due to high heat.
 Weld metal deposit  Since the operator cannot see the
(20 Kg/hr) possesses uniformity, welding being carried out, he
good ductility, corrosion resistance cannot judge the progress of
and good impact strength. welding accurately.
 The progress is limited to welding
 Very neat appearance and smooth in flat position and on the metal
weld shapes can be get. more than 4.8 mm thick. In small
thicknesses burn through is likely to
 Because of high heat occur
concentration, considerably higher
welding speeds(5M/min) can be  Flux is subjected to contamination
caused. that may cause weld porosity.
 Molten flux provides very
suitable conditions for high current
to flow. Great intensities of heat
can be generated and kept
concentrated to weld thicker
sections with deep penetrations
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING
• Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is an arc welding
process that makes use of an arc between two
tungsten metal electrodes within an atmosphere
composed of hydrogen. Shielding is obtained from
the hydrogen.
• The electric arc produced in the process efficiently
breaks up the molecules of hydrogen that later
recombine through an extreme release of heat
nearly 42000c.
• The equipment consists of a welding torch with two
tungsten electrodes inclined and adjusted to
maintain a stable arc.
• Annular nozzles around the tungsten electrodes
carry the hydrogen gas supplied from the gas
cylinders.
• AC power source is suitable compared to DC, because
equal amount of heat will be available at both the
electrodes.
• An arc is stuck by bringing the two tungsten electrodes in
contact with each other and instantaneously separated by
a small distance, say 1.5 mm, such that the arc still remains
between the two electrodes.
• As the jet of hydrogen gas passes through the electric arc,
it disassociates into atomic hydrogen by absorbing large
amounts of heat supplied by the electric arc. H2 = H + H –
422KJ (endothermic reaction)
• Recombination takes place as the atomic hydrogen
touches the cold work piece liberating a large amount of
heat. H + H = H2 + 422 KJ (Exothermic reaction)
• The heat produced by this torch • Cost of welding by this process is
is sufficient to weld tungsten slightly higher than with the
(3422 °C), the most refractory other process.
metal.
• Welding is limited to flat positions
only.
• Filler material is not used. In fillet • Because of the high levels of
weld only, filler is used. Or in heat produced in this welding
other material if to have any process, welders need to be even
change in composition of weld. more aware of the dangers they
are exposed to.
• Hydrogen supply and arc can be • Skilled welder is required.
easily controlled by welder, • Due to advances in inert gases
because of that heat is controlled AHW may be limited.
to weld different metals.
• Hydrogen is highly inflammable
gas so it should be taken care.
• Because of the powerful reducing Applications:
action of the atomic hydrogen,
alloys can be melted without Die repairs & welding of heat resistant
fluxes and without surface alloys like SS.
oxidation
PLASMA ARC WELDING(PAW)
• A plasma is a gas which is heated to an extremely high
temperature and ionized so that it becomes electrically
conductive. Similar to GTAW (TIG), the plasma arc welding
process uses this plasma to transfer an electric arc to a work
piece. The metal to be welded is melted by the intense heat
of the arc and fuses together.
• In the plasma welding torch a Tungsten electrode is located
within a copper nozzle having a small opening at the tip. A
pilot arc is initiated between the torch electrode and nozzle
tip. This arc is then transferred to the metal to be welded.
• By forcing the plasma gas and arc through a constricted
orifice, the torch delivers a high concentration of heat to a
small area. With high performance welding equipment, the
plasma process produces exceptionally high quality welds.
• Plasma gases are normally argon. The torch also uses a
secondary gas, argon, argon/hydrogen or helium which
assists in shielding the molten weld puddle thus minimizing
oxidation of the weld.
• The PAW technique generally used is “KEY
HOLE”
• Due to concentrate straight arc, the base
metal beneath the arc is melted completely,
so a thin hole is formed which will travel along
the direction of weld torch.
• The power supply given is DCEN to increase
electrode life.
• Filler if necessary is used, more deposition and
deep penetration is possible than in TIG.
• The main advantage of • A major limitation in
plasma welding lies in the implementing a plasma
control and quality welding process is the
produced in the part being relatively high startup
welded. costs.
• Welds are typically cleaner
and smoother when using • Plasma welding
the PAW process. equipment tends to be
• Smaller heat-affected zones
expensive. Because it is a
result in welds that are very more specialized welding
strong and less noticeable, process, the training and
which is important for some expertise required is also
parts. more intense.
• Protected electrode allows • There is a need of
for less electrode Frequent replacement of
contamination nozzle.
STUDD ARC WELDING
• The process can quickly weld almost any size or
configuration of metal stud to a work piece,
with maximum weld penetration and reliability.
• The process requires a DC power supply to
create the arc; a stud welding gun; metal
fasteners; and in some cases, ferrules(a
disposable ceramic shield that contains the
molten pool of metal).
• The two stud welding methods are called
Capacitor discharge (CD) and ARC.
• CD stud welding is similar to arc stud welding,
except that it uses a capacitor storage system to
produce a rapid electrical discharge.
• No ferrules or flux are needed. The process is used
mainly for welding mild steel, stainless steel and
aluminum studs.
• CD stud welding joins small-diameter studs to thin,
lightweight materials. The weld cycle can be
completed in 0.01 second on material as thin as
0.02 inch.
• Arc stud welding creates strong, one-sided welds
on base metals as thin as 0.048 inch. It produces
welds in as little as 0.06 second.
• With special techniques, it can be performed on
painted surfaces, eliminating the need for grinding
and recoating.
Process:
• The stud is placed (with a hand tool called the
Weld Gun) against the base metal, through the
control of the stud welding equipment and the
design of the stud.
• An arc is drawn by short circuting, which melts the
base of the stud and a proportionate area of the
base metal and then stud, moved back slightly by
means of motor inside the torch
• The stud is then forced into the molten pool and
held in place until the metals re-solidify.
• This high quality fusion weld is completed in
milliseconds.
Fire Cracker Welding
• A flux-coated electrode, as
used for SMAW (manual
stick welding), is laid
horizontally above a close-
fitting butt weld.
• An arc is struck at one end
of the electrode, which then
burns along the length of
the electrode.
• The electrode is held in
place by either copper
blocks, clamps or adhesive
tape.
• Manual metal arc welding is relatively slow, as much
time is spent stopping to fit new electrodes and to clean
slag before restarting.
• Firecracker welding allows a weld the entire length of an
electrode to be welded in one pass, without pausing.
Extra-long electrodes may be used to increase the length
that may be welded in one pass, up to 72 inches.
• One drawback is that the size of the bead deposited is
limited by the cross-section of the electrode, as there is
no scope for manually weaving the arc to deposit more
rod in less weld length.
• For this reason, the flux coating often contains iron
powder, to give additional deposition. The rod coating is
generally the same as for manual arc, with no change
being required.
Advantages Disadvantages
• The one-pass bead is
• The process is semi- limited in cross section to
automated that of the original
• The equipment required is electrode, i.e. there is no
simple and cheap, the same opportunity for weaving.
as for manual arc. Multiple passes are not
• Welding is quicker than generally used.
manual arc, as electrode • The process is limited to
changing is reduced. straight welds in horizontal
• Porosity and slag inclusion position.
of the finished weld is
reduced, as electrode
positioning is consistent and
accurate.
• The process can be applied
in inaccessible areas, with
poor visibility, and with less
operator skill.
Resistance Welding
• Resistance welding is a fusion welding process
where both heat and pressure are applied on
the joint.
• It doesn't need any flux and filler material.
• The heat necessary for welding is obtained by
heating effect of the electrical resistance of the
joint and hence the name Resistance welding.
Principle of Resistance welding
• In resistance welding, a low voltage (1V) and
very high current(1500A) is passed through the
joint for a very short time(0.25sec).
• The high current heats the joint, due to contact
resistance at the joint and melts it.
• The pressure on the joint is maintained
continuously and the metal fuses together
under the pressure.
• The heat generated in resistance welding can
be expressed as H=K I2RT
• The heat released is
directly proportional to
resistance.
• More amount of heat is
generated at the
interface between two
work piece plates to
have an effective fusion.
• Because of the squaring
in the above equation,
so the current I need to
be precisely controlled
for any proper joint.
Resistance Spot welding
• At first the job is cleaned and all types of contaminants
like grease, oil, dirt , scale and paint are removed.
• The surface of the electrodes are also made very clean.
• For clamping the metal sheets together two copper
electrodes are used at the same time.
• The current passes through electrodes and then into the
metal sheets. Because of the resistance, heat is
generated in the air gap within the contact points.
• Since copper is great conductor, heat is dissipated to
the metal so quickly. As the metal (work piece) is a poor
conductor of heat in comparison to the copper
electrode the heat remains in the air gap.
• So the heat remains in
the one place creating a
strong effect and the
metal is melted
at that desired spot.
The period of heat
dissipation is very small
and at this time metal
gets melted and then
become solid and thus
the joint is formed.
Resistance seam welding
• The seam welding process is an adaptation of resistance spot
welding and involves making a series of overlapping spot
welds by means of rotating copper alloy wheel electrodes to
form a continuous leak tight joint.
• The electrodes are not opened between spots. The
electrode wheels apply a constant force to the work pieces
and rotate at a controlled speed.
• The welding current is normally pulsed to give a series of
discrete spots, but may be continuous for certain high speed
applications where gaps could otherwise occur between
individual spots.
• Seam welding equipment is normally fixed and the
components being welded are manipulated between the
wheels. The process may be automated.
• Seam welding enables high
welding speeds to be obtained
compared with many other
techniques, but can be limited
by component shape and wheel
access.
• There are two modes for seam
welding: Intermittent and
continuous.
• In intermittent seam welding,
the wheels advance to the
desired position and stop to
make each weld. This process
continues until the desired
length of the weld is reached.
• In continuous seam welding,
the wheels continue to roll as
each weld is made.
Resistance projection welding
• In resistance projection welding (RPW), small
projections are formed on one or both pieces of the
base metal to obtain contact at a point which
localize the current flow and concentrate the heat.
• Under pressure, the heated and softened
projections collapse and a weld is formed.
• Projection on the upper component is pressed
against the lower component by electrode force.
• The projection collapses and a fused weld nugget
are formed with the application of current.
• This technique is of special value in mounting
attachments to surfaces of which the back side is
inaccessible to a welding operator.
Resistance Upset welding
• Upset welding (UW)/resistance butt welding is
a welding technique that produces coalescence
simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces
or progressively along a joint, by the heat obtained
from resistance to electric current through the area
where those surfaces are in contact.
• Pressure is applied before heating is started and is
maintained throughout the heating period.
• It can be used only if the parts to be welded are equal in
cross-sectional area. The abutting surfaces must be very
carefully prepared to provide for proper heating.
• When they have been heated to a suitable forging
temperature an upsetting force is applied and the
current is stopped. The high temperature of the work at
the abutting surfaces plus the high pressure causes
coalescence to take place. After cooling, the force is
released and the weld is completed.
Resistance Flash welding
• It is similar to upset welding, except that the heat required for
melting is obtained by means of an arc rather than the simple
resistance heating. The equipment consist of two plates to which
two pieces to be joined or clamped; one plate is fixed, the other is
movable.
• Between these two the arc is being produced and therefore, the
heating in these ends will take place and these two ends can be
fused together by application of some pressure.
• That pressure can be applied through cam mechanism, which will
cause this particular platen to move against this fixed platen.
• And therefore, there will be a pressure generated here which will
cause fusing of these two ends under the intense heat because of
the arc
• The ends of the two
pieces need to be parallel.
The two pieces are
brought together and the
power is switched on.
• Momentarily the two
pieces are separated to
create an arc to melt the
ends of the two pieces.
Then again the two pieces
are brought together.
• The power is switched off
while the two ends are
fused under force. Most
of the metal melted
would flash out through
the joint and forms like a
fin around the joint.
Solid State Welding
• Solid state welding processes are those welding processes in
which no external heat is applied and the joining of work
piece takes place in solid state.
• In these welding processes, no filler metal is used and
welding does not involve molten state of base material or
filler material.
• The weld formation take place due to inter molecular
diffusion process in which, the interface molecules of work
pieces flows from high concentration region to low
concentration region due to applied pressure.
• Some methods are used to produce heat which accelerates
diffusion process at mating surfaces.
• This type of welding processes does not affect the
mechanical or physical properties of parent material thus
these are widely used in industries application. These are
ideal joining processes for heat sensitive material.
Cold or Roll welding
• Roll bonding is a solid state, cold welding process, obtained
through flat rolling of sheet metals.
• In roll bonding, two or more layers of different metals are
passed through a pair of flat rollers under sufficient pressure to
bond the layers.
• The pressure is high enough to deform the metals and reduce
the combined thickness of the clad material.
• The mating surfaces must be previously prepared (scratched,
cleaned, degreased) in order to increase their friction
coefficient and remove any oxide layers. The process can be
performed at room temperature or at warm conditions.
• In warm roll bonding, heat is applied to pre-heat the sheets
just before rolling, in order to increase their ductility and
improve the strength of the weld.
• The strength of the rolled
bonds depends on the main
process parameters,
including the rolling
conditions (entry
temperature of the sheets,
amount of thickness
reduction, rolling speed,
etc.), the pre-rolling
treatment conditions
(annealing temperature and
time, surface preparation
techniques, etc.) and the
post-rolling heat treatments
Explosion welding
• This welding uses explosive energy to join two plates. In
this process both the welding plates placed one over
another such that the welding surface is in contact with
one another.
• Now a buffer plate is placed over upper surface of
welding plate which protects welding plates form high
impact force of explosive.
• The explosive is placed over buffer plate. When the
explosion starts, a high pressure wave generates which
deform the interface surface of welding plates plastically
and form a metallurgical bond between these plates.
• This joint is stronger than parent material. It is mostly
used to weld large welding area
Explosive welding
Friction welding
• In friction welding process, both the plates or work piece to be
joint are in either rotating or moving relative to one another. This
relative movement produces friction which displaces material
plastically on contact surface. A high pressure force applied till
completed the weld. This welding is used to joint steel bars, tubes
up to 100 mm diameter.
• Principle:
• Friction welding works on basic principle of friction. In this welding
process, the friction is used to generate heat at the interference
surface. This heat is further used to join two work pieces by
applying external pressure at the surface of work piece.
• In this welding process, the friction is applied until the plastic
forming temperature is achieved. It is normally 900-1300 degree
centigrade for steel. After this heating phase, a uniformly
increasing pressure force applied until the both metal work pieces
makes a permanent joint. This joint is created due to thermo
mechanical treatment at the contact surface.
• http://www.mech4study.com/2017/04/friction-welding-principle-working-types-
application-advantages-and-disadvantages.html
Friction Stir welding
• In friction stir welding (FSW) a cylindrical, shouldered
tool with a profiled probe is rotated and slowly plunged
into the joint line between two pieces butted together.
• The parts have to be clamped onto a backing bar in a
manner that prevents the abutting joint faces from being
forced apart.
• Frictional heat is generated between the wear resistant
welding tool and the material of the work pieces.
• This heat causes the latter to soften without reaching
the melting point and allows traversing of the tool along
the weld line.
• The maximum temperature reached is of the order of 0.8
of the melting temperature of the material.
• It leaves a solid phase bond
between the two pieces. The
process can be regarded as a solid
phase keyhole welding technique
since a hole to accommodate the
probe is generated, then filled
during the welding sequence
Advantages
• No hot cracks, no gas pores
• No shielding gases and
consumables
• Possibility of joining of dissimilar
metals
• Welding possible in all directions
LIMITATIONS
• Large force of magnitude 10KN
• Rigid clamping system needed
• Hole at the end of the weld
• High investment cost
Ultrasonic welding
• A solid state welding process in which coalescence is
produced at the faying surfaces by the application of
high frequency vibratory energy while the work pieces
are held together under moderately low static pressure.
• It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for
joining dissimilar materials.
• Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics causes local
melting of the plastic due to absorption of vibration
energy.
• The vibrations are introduced across the joint to be
welded. In metals, Ultrasonic welding occurs due to high-
pressure dispersion of surface oxides and local motion of
the materials. Although there is heating, it is not enough
to melt the base materials. Vibrations are introduced
along the joint being welded.
USW Process
• A static clamping force is
applied perpendicular to
the interface between the
work pieces.
• The contacting sonotrode
oscillates parallel to the
interface.
• Combined effect of static
and oscillating force
produces deformation
which promotes welding.
Thermit welding
Electro Slag welding
• Electroslag Welding is a welding
process, in which the heat is generated
by an electric current passing between
the consumable electrode (filler metal)
and the work piece through a molten
slag covering the weld surface.
Prior to welding the gap between the
two work pieces is filled with a welding
flux.
• Electro slag Welding is initiated by
an arc between the electrode and the
work piece (or starting plate).
• Heat, generated by the arc, melts the
fluxing powder and forms molten slag.
• The slag, having low electric
conductivity, is maintained in liquid
state due to heat produced by the
electric current.
• The slag reaches a temperature of about 3500°F (1930°C). This
temperature is sufficient for melting the consumable electrode and
work piece edges. Metal droplets fall to the weld pool and join the
work pieces.
• Electroslag Welding is used mainly for steels.
Advantages of Electroslag Welding:
• High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h);

• Low slag consumption (about 5% of the deposited metal weight);
• Low distortion;
• Unlimited thickness of work piece.
Disadvantages of Electroslag welding:
• Coarse grain structure of the weld;

• Low toughness of the weld;
• Only vertical position is possible.
Laser Beam welding
LBM process
• First the setup of welding machine at the desired location (in between
the two metal pieces to be joined) is done.
• After setup, a high voltage power supply is applied on the laser
machine. This starts the flash lamps of the machine and it emits light
photons. The energy of the light photon is absorbed by the atoms of
ruby crystal and electrons get excited to their higher energy level.
When they return back to their ground state (lower Energy state) they
emit a photon of light. This light photon again stimulates the excited
electrons of the atom and produces two photons. This process keeps
continue and we get a concentrated laser beam.
• This high concentrated laser beam is focused to the desired location
for the welding of the multiple pieces together. Lens are used to focus
the laser to the area where welding is needed. CAM is used to control
the motion of the laser and work piece table during the welding
process.
• As the laser beam strikes the cavity between the two metal pieces to
be joined, it melts the base metal from both the pieces and fuses
them together. After solidification we get a strong weld.
• This is how a laser Beam Welding Works.
Advantages
• It produces high weld quality.
• LBW can be easily automated with robotic machinery for large volume production.
• No electrode is required.
• No tool wears because it is a non-contact process.
• The time taken for welding thick section is reduced.
• It is capable of welding in those areas which is not easily accessible.
• It has the ability to weld metals with dissimilar physical properties.
• It can be weld through air and no vacuum is required.
• X – Ray shielding is not required as it does not produce any X-Rays.
• It can be focused on small areas for welding. This is because of its narrower beam
of high energy.
• Wide variety of materials can be welded by using laser beam welding.
• It produces weld of aspect ratio (i.e. depth to width ratio) of 10:1.
Disadvantages
• Initial cost is high. The equipment used in LBW has high cost.
• High maintenance cost.
• Due to rapid rate of cooling, cracks may be produced in some metals.
• High skilled labour is required to operate LBW.
• The welding thickness is limited to 19 mm.
• The energy conversion efficiency in LBW is very low. It is usually below 10
Forge welding
• Forge welding method is oldest welding process. It has an
application of the blacksmith’s method of metals joining.
• The metals which to be joint are heated in furnace just below the
molten stage of metals (looks like very bright). Then heated metals
are bring on anvil from heat source and superimposed the both
metals where to be joint. Apply the hammering or pressed together
until a joint has been created.
• The applying of heat must be uniformed. Otherwise the joint is made
weak or spongy rough appearance. So heat should not be too high
or too little.
• To avoidance of oxidation a little amount of flux may be used in weld
joint.
• Low carbon steel and wrought iron components gives satisfactory
weld joints.
• There are mainly three types of
forge welding method is used -
• Hammer welding.
• Roll welding.
• Die welding.
Diffusion welding
• Diffusion bonding is a solid state welding process in which, no
liquid or fusion phase involves and the weld joint is form in
pure solid state
• It does not melt the welding material and mostly a little
plastic deformation takes place at interface surface and weld
is form due to inter-molecular diffusion. This bonding process
conducted in vacuum or in inert environment to reduce
oxidation. This is widely used to join refectory materials in
aerospace and nuclear industries.
• This type of welding can be used to weld both similar and
dissimilar materials with the help of high pressure and
temperature.
Process
• First both the welding plate surfaces prepared for welding. In this process,
both the interface surfaces made equally flat which is basic requirement of
diffusion process. The interface surfaces should be machined, cleaned and
polished well which remove all chemical contaminants from the surface. Any
contaminant particle can be reduced diffusion between welding plates.
• Now both the plates are clamped and placed one over another. This
assembly placed into a vacuum chamber or in a inert environment. This
protects the welding surface from oxidation.
• A high pressure and temperature applied on this assembly to start diffusion.
The temperature applied by the furnace heating or electric resistance
heating. The high pressure is applied by a hydraulic press, dead weight or by
the differential gas pressure. This conditions are maintained for a long
duration of time for proper diffusion.
• At the starting stage of this process, local deformation at the interface
surface due to creep and yield take place. Now the diffusion takes place
which form a interface boundary.
• After a long period of time, both the plates properly diffused into one
another which makes a strong joint. The interface boundary disappear which
form a clean joint. This joint has same properties or strength as the base
material
Advantages:
• The joint have same mechanical and physical properties as parent material.
• This process produces clean joint which is free from interface discontinuity and porosity.
• Both similar and dissimilar material can be joint by diffusion bonding process.
• It provides good dimension tolerance. So it is used to make precision components.
• Low running cost.
• It is simple in working.
• It does not use filler material, flux etc. which are used in arc welding process.
• It can weld complex shapes.
•
Disadvantages:
• High initial or setup cost.
• It is time consuming process. It takes more time compare to other welding process.
• Surface preparations of welding plates are more critical and difficult.
• Size of the weld is limited according to equipment available.
• This process is not suitable for mass production.
• Highly depend on welding parameters like surface finish, welding material, temperature,
pressure etc.
Application:
• It is mostly used to weld refectory materials used in aerospace and nuclear industries.
• Diffusion bonding is used to weld titanium, zirconium and beryllium metals and its alloy.
• It can weld nickel alloy like Inconel, Wrought Udimet etc.
• It is used to weld dissimilar metals
like Cu to Ti, Cu to Al etc.
WELDING DEFECTS
• In view of severe thermal regime through which
welding process proceeds, the weldments are likely
to be affected and if proper care is not taken, likely to
end up with certain defects.
• Cracks
• Porosity
• Solid inclusions
• Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete
penetration
• Imperfect shape
• Miscellaneous Defects
• Lamellar tearing
• Cracks
• Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in the weld metal or
base metal or base metal and weld metal boundary. Different categories of
cracks are longitudinal cracks, transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and
cracks in the weld crater. Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the
ultimate tensile strength of material. These stresses are developed due to
shrinkage during solidification of weld metal.
• Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of base metal, high sulpher
and carbon contents, high arc travel speeds i.e. fast cooling rates, too
concave or convex weld bead and high hydrogen contents in the weld metal.
• Porosity
• Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal.
These gases are generated from the flux or coating constituents of the
electrode or shielding gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture
in the coating.
• Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work pieces or on
electrodes are also source of gases during welding. Porosity may be easily
prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and
grease.
• Further, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high welding currents,
faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are avoided flux and coated
electrodes are properly baked.
• Solid Inclusion
• Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic
material entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float on
the surface of the solidifying weld metal. During arc welding flux
either in the form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the
molten weld metal removing oxides and other impurities in the form
of slag and it floats on the surface of weld metal due to its low density.
However, if the molten weld metal has high viscosity or too low
temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may not be released from
the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
• Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is selected, all the
slag from the previously deposited bead is removed, too high or too
low welding currents and long arcs are avoided
• Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete penetration:
• Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse together either the base metal and weld
metal or subsequent beads in multi pass welding because of failure to raise the
temperature of base metal or previously deposited weld layer to melting point
during welding.
• Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of surfaces to be welded,
selecting proper current, proper welding technique and correct size of
electrode.
• Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is not up to the desired
level or root faces have not reached to melting point in a groove joint.
• If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large root face or small root gap
or too narrow groove angles are used then it results into poor penetration.
• Imperfect Shape
• Imperfect shape means the variation from the desired shape and size of
the weld bead.
• During undercutting a notch is formed either on one side of the weld bead
or both sides in which stresses tend to concentrate and it can result in the
early failure of the joint. Main reasons for undercutting are the excessive
welding currents, long arc lengths and fast travel speeds.
• Under filling may be due to low currents, fast travel speeds and small size
of electrodes. Overlap may occur due to low currents, longer arc lengths
and slower welding speeds.
• Excessive reinforcement is formed if high currents, low voltages, slow travel
speeds and large size electrodes are used. Excessive root penetration and
slag occur if excessive high currents and slow travel speeds are used for
relatively thinner members.
• Distortion is caused because of shrinkage occurring due to large heat input
during welding.
• Miscellaneous Defects
• Various miscellaneous defects may be multiple arc strikes i.e. several arc
strikes are one behind the other, spatter, grinding and chipping marks, tack
weld defects, oxidized surface in the region of weld, un removed slag and
misalignment of weld beads if welded from both sides in butt welds.
• Lamellar tearing
• In general it is seen at the edge of HAZ. It appears as a long and continuous
visual separation line between the base metal and HAZ.
• This is caused by the presence of the elongated inclusions such as Mn, Fe
and S in the base metal.
• It is also caused by weld configuration which gives rise to high residual
tensile stresses in the transverse direction.
BRAZING
• Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal
items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal
into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point
than the adjoining metal.
• Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting
the work pieces and from soldering in using higher
temperatures for a similar process, while also requiring much
more closely fitted parts than when soldering.
• The filler metal flows into the gap between close-fitting parts
by capillary action.
• The filler metal is brought slightly above its melting (liquidus)
temperature while protected by a suitable atmosphere,
usually a flux. It then flows over the base metal (known as
wetting) and is then cooled to join the work pieces together.
• A major advantage of brazing is the ability to join the same or
different metals with considerable strength.
• A variety of alloys are used as filler metals for brazing.. In general,
braze alloys are made up of 3 or more metals to form an alloy with
the desired properties.
• Aluminum-silicon
• Copper
• Copper-silver
• Copper-zinc (brass)
• Copper-tin (bronze)
• Gold-silver
• Nickel alloy
• Silver
• Amorphous brazing foil using nickel, iron, copper, silicon,
boron, phosphorus, etc
• Unless brazing operations are contained within an inert or reducing
atmosphere environment (i.e. a vacuum furnace), a flux such
as borax is required to prevent oxides from forming while the metal
is heated. The flux also serves the purpose of cleaning any
contamination left on the brazing surfaces. Flux can be applied in any
number of forms including flux paste, liquid, powder or pre-made
brazing pastes that combine flux with filler metal powder.
Different types of brazing
• Torch brazing
• Furnace brazing
• Silver brazing
• Vacuum brazing
• Dip brazing
• Torch Brazing
• Torch brazing is the most common form of mechanized brazing. In
some countries it is the method used for the majority of the brazing
that is done. Specialized operations or small production volumes are
often where this method is used. The three categories of torch brazing
are machine, manual, and automatic.
• Manual torch brazing has heat applied with a gas flame near or on the
joint. It can be a hand held torch or held in a fixed position, depending
on the method. Usually it is used where other methods are impossible
or for small production volumes. Flux is required.
• Machine torch brazing is used when the operation is repetitive. It is a
mix of manual and automated methods and uses flux, reduces the
cost and works for small to medium production projects.
• Automatic torch brazing has a high production rate, reduced costs, and
a uniform braze quality. A worker is needed just for unloading and
loading the machine.
Furnace Brazing
• This method is semi-automatic and is used in industrial operations. It
can produce large numbers of small parts, has a controlled heat cycle,
and post braze cleaning is not needed. To prevent oxidation, inert,
vacuum, or reducing atmospheres are used. It is cost efficient to run
but uses a lot of power compared to other methods, is more difficult
to design, and the equipment is expensive. The kinds of furnaces used
are batch type, vacuum, retort with controlled atmosphere, and
continuous.
Silver Brazing
• This method uses silver alloy based filler for brazing. It is also known
as hard soldering or silver soldering. The silver alloys have a lot of
variety and different percentages of silver and other metals in them,
such as cadmium, zinc, and copper. A special method of silver brazing
is pin brazing (pin brazing). It is used especially for cathodic protection
installations or for connecting cables to railway track. It can be used in
the tool industry to do such jobs as fasten hard metal (like carbide) to
such tools as saw blades. prepared by A.SUBRAHMANYAM
Vacuum Brazing
• In this technique the brazing process is done inside of a
vacuum. There are many advantages such as flux-free joints
that are very strong and have high integrity, are superior to
other joints and are extremely clean.
• It can be an expensive process. Residual stresses are greatly
reduced because of the slow heating and cooling cycles in this
process.
• The material’s thermal and mechanical properties are
improved and things such as heat treating or age hardening
can be done during the metal joining process. The process is
done in a furnace and heat is transferred with radiation.
Dip Brazing
• This particular technique is very suited for brazing aluminum
because there is no air and therefore no oxidation. The brazing
compound is usually applied in slurry form and the assembly
dropped into a molten salt bath that will work as both a flux
and heat transfer. prepared by A.SUBRAHMANYAM
Braze Welding
• This method uses a brass or bronze filler rod that is
coated with flux in order to join steel work pieces.
• It requires more heat than basic brazing and
acetylene or methyl acetylene-propadiene (MPS)
gas fuel is often used.
• The name comes from the fact that this method
does not have capillary action.
• Dissimilar metals are able to be joined with this
method, there is a reduced need for pre-heating,
and minimal heat distortion.
• However, there is a loss of strength when the work
is under high temperatures and it cannot
withstand high stress
SOLDERING
• Soldering is a process in which two or more
materials (usually metal) are joined together by
melting with the filler material into the joint.
Normally the filler metal having a lower melting
point (below 450°C) than the base metal.
• The filler fills the joint by capillary action.
• The solder does not melt the base metal but by
dissolving a small amount of it to form a layer of
intermetallic compound.
• It is any of various fusible alloys usually tin or lead
used to join metallic parts. Since solder has tin
content, coating a surface with solder is called
“tinning”.
Types of solder
• 60/40 solder- its composition is 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at
3740F. It forms high rounded, beaded seams. Because of its low
relatively melting point this type of solder is easy to rework to
maintain a smooth finish.
• 50/50 solder- its composition is 50% tin and 50% lead. Its melting
point is 4210F. This type of solder produces a much flatter bead than
60/40. Because of its high melting point this type of solder is often
used on the back of stained glasses, to protect it from melting when
soldering the front.
• 63/37 solder- its composition is 63% tin and 37% lead. This type of
solder is an excellent solder to bead up the outside rim of copper
foiled pieces. It is often referred as decorated or quick set solder.
• Lead free solder- This type of solder performs similar to 50/50 solder.
Lead free solder is a most expensive solder, but when constructing
pieces that will contact food or that are handled frequently, this type
of solder is different.
TYPES OF SOLDERING
• With soldering iron (flame or electrically heated)
• Dip soldering
• Wave soldering
 A soldering iron is a copper rod with a thin tip, which
can be used for flattening the soldering material.
 The soldering iron can be heated by keeping in a
furnace or by means of an internal electrical resistance.
 The power rating may vary 15W for the electronic
applications and 200 W for sheet metal joining.
 This is most convenient method but comparatively slow
process.
• Dip soldering
In dip soldering large amount of solder is
melted in a tank, which is closed.
The parts that are to be soldered are first
cleaned Properly and then dipped in a flux bath
as per the requirement.
These are then dipped into the molten solder
bath and lifted with the soldering complete.
Wave soldering
 It is a different method in which a wave is created
in molten solder tank which will come in contact
with part to be soldered and makes the joint.
 This is a continuous process where PCB are
continuously moving over the molten solder tank
and waves are generated continuously.
 This is used for mass production of the electronic
equipment.
 The other soldering processes are torch soldering,
oven soldering, resistance soldering, induction
soldering and infrared soldering.
SOLDERING
Applications
• Soldering has the most
common use in plumbing and
in the field of electronics
where it is used to mount
electronic components on
printed circuit boards. In
addition to this, soldering has
its application in jewellary
making, cooking wares, tools,
stained glass work and many
more. It can also be used to
repair a leakage in containers.

Unit-V: Metal Joining Processes

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UNIT-V

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

– Welding is used for making permanent joints.

C2H2+02 2CO+H2+448 KJ/mol

4CO+302+2H2 4CO2+2H2O+812 KJ/mol

Carburizing flame contains acetylene in excess proportion, having an

• Advantages of Carbon Arc • Disadvantages of Carbon

• Low cost of equipment • Unstable quality of the

• High deposition rate - up to 45 lbs/h (20 kg/h);

Disadvantages of Electroslag welding:

• Coarse grain structure of the weld;

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