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A Straight Line
Motion
The world, and everything in it, moves. Even seemingly stationary
things, such as a roadway, move with Earth’s rotation, Earth’s orbit
around the Sun, the Sun’s orbit around the center of the Milky Way
galaxy, and that galaxy’s migration relative to other galaxies.
Displacement is an example
of a vector quantity, Its Position is determined on an axis that is
magnitude is the distance marked in units of length (here meters)
(such as the number of and that extends indefinitely in opposite
meters) between the original directions. The axis name, here x, is
and final positions. Its always on the positive side of the origin.
3.2
3.3
Instantaneous Velocity
The average velocity of a particle during a time interval can’t tell us
how fast, or in what direction, the particle was moving at any given
time during the interval. To do this we need to know the
instantaneous velocity, or the velocity at a specific instant of time or
specific point along the path. To find the instantaneous velocity of at
the point we move the second point closer and closer to the first point
and compute the average velocity over the ever-shorter displacement
and time interval. Both and become very small, but their ratio does
not necessarily become small. In the language of calculus, the limit of
as approaches zero is called the derivative of x with respect to t and
is written
If we express velocity in
meters per second and
time in seconds, then
average acceleration is in
meters per second per
second, or This is usually
written as and is read
“meters per second
squared.”
graphs of x-velocity
versus time (top) and
average x-acceleration
versus time (bottom)
Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the average
acceleration as the time interval approaches zero. In the language
of calculus, instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of
velocity with time.
on a graph of x-velocity as a
function of time, the instantaneous
x-acceleration at any point is
equal to the slope of the tangent
to the curve at that point.
When vx and ax have the same sign, the body is speeding up. If both
are positive, the body is moving in the positive direction with
increasing speed. If both are negative, the body is moving in the
negative direction with an x-velocity that is becoming more and more
negative, and again the speed is increasing. When vx and ax have
opposite signs, the body is slowing down. If vx is positive and ax is
negative, the body is moving in the positive direction with decreasing
speed; if is vx negative and ax is positive, the body is moving in the
negative direction with an x-velocity that is becoming less negative,
and again the body is slowing down.
The term “deceleration” is sometimes used for a decrease in speed.
Because and
We can write
3.7
Rules for the Sign of x-Acceleration
Motion With Constant
Acceleration
Motion with Constant Acceleration
The simplest kind of
accelerated motion is
straight-line motion with
constant acceleration. In
this case the velocity
changes at the same rate
throughout the motion. As
an example, a falling
body has a constant
acceleration if the effects
of the air are not
important.
let t1 = 0 and let t2 be any later time t. We use the symbol v0x for the x-
velocity at the initial time t = 0; the x-velocity at the later time t is vx.
Then Eq. (3.8) becomes
or
3.10
3.11
(This eq. is not true if the x-acceleration varies during the time interval.)
For constant x-acceleration, the x-velocity at any time t is given by Eq.
(3.9). Substituting that expression for into Eq. (3.11),
3.12
3.10
Finally, set Eqs. (3.10) and (3.12)
equal to each other and simplify:
3.13
3.14
We can get one more useful relationship by equating the two expressions
for vav-x,Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), and multiplying through by t.
3.15
This Eq. does not contain the x-acceleration and could be handy
when is constant but its value is unknown.
Equations of Motion with Constant
Acceleration
The exact value varies with location, so we will often give the value of
g at the earth’s surface to only two significant figures. On the surface
of the moon, the acceleration due to gravity is caused by the attractive
force of the moon rather than the earth, and g = 1.6 m/s2. Near the
surface of the sun, g is about 270 m/s2.
g is always a positive number because g is the magnitude of a
vector quantity, it is always a positive number. If you take the positive
direction to be upward, and in most situations involving free fall, the
acceleration is negative (downward) and equal to -g . Be careful with
the sign of g, or else you’ll have no end of trouble with free-fall
problems.
Velocity and Position by Integration
When is ax not constant, as is frequently the case, the equations that
we derived in previous section are no longer valid. But even then, we
can use the relationship vx = dx/dt to find the x-velocity as a function of
time if the position x is a known function of time. And we can still use
ax= dvx/dt to find the x-acceleration as a function of time if the x-
velocity is a known function of time.
If t1 = 0 and t2 is any later time t, and if x0 and v0x are the position
and velocity, respectively, at time t = 0 then we can rewrite
Problems
Questions ?