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Duct Design
A S H R A E H A N D B O O K F U N D A M E N TA L S

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Concepts and Theory

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Bernoulli Equation
Master title style Head and Pressure

• An equation that states that the total head • Head refers to the height of a fluid column
or pressure (which is an indicator of the supported by the fluid flow.
amount of energy it carries) of a fluid along
a flow streamline is constant.
• Pressure is the amount of force exerted by
• In non-ideal considerations, it states that
the moving fluid per unit area.
the head in the upstream flow (section 1) is
equal to the head downstream (section 2)
minus some amount of head loss between
• Static Pressure, 𝒑𝒔
the two sections.
 fluid pressure associated with the
energy of flow of the fluid
𝜌1 𝑉12 𝜌2 𝑉22
+ 𝑝1 + 𝑔𝜌1 𝑧1 = + 𝑝2 + 𝑔𝜌2 𝑧2 • Velocity Pressure, 𝒑𝒗
2 2
 fluid pressure associated with the
energy of flow of the fluid
Thermal Gravity Effect 𝑝𝑣 = 0.602𝑉 2

• Total Pressure, 𝒑𝒕
Static Pressure
 Sum of static and velocity pressures
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Velocity Pressure
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Bernoulli Equation
Master title style
• Using the Bernoulli Equation, we can derive a useful equation for finding
the total pressure difference between two sections along the fluid flow:

𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
∆𝑝𝑡,1−2 = 𝑝𝑠,1 + − 𝑝𝑠,2 + + 𝑔 𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
2 2

Thermal Gravity Effect (∆𝑝𝑠𝑒 )

Total pressure in section 2
Total pressure in section 1

• 𝑔 = 9.81 = gravitational acceleration, m/s2

• 𝜌𝑎 = density of ambient air, kg/m3 (In standard conditions, 𝜌𝑎 = 1.204 kg/m3 )
In practice, we will not be only considering the pressure change between two sections but a multitude of 𝑖 sections.

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Click toAnalysis
System edit Master title style
• The total pressure change through 𝑖 sections caused by friction ∆𝑝𝑓 ,
fittings ∆𝑝𝑖𝑗 , equipment ∆𝑝𝑖𝑘 , and net thermal gravity effect or stack
effect ∆𝑝𝑠𝑒,𝑖𝑟 is given by:

𝑚 𝑛 𝜆

∆𝑝𝑡,𝑖 = ∆𝑝𝑓,𝑖 + ෍ ∆𝑝𝑖𝑗 + ෍ ∆𝑝𝑖𝑘 − ෍ ∆𝑝𝑠𝑒,𝑖𝑟

𝑗=1 𝑘=1 𝑟=1

net thermal gravity effect

pressure loss due to equipment

pressure loss due to fittings

pressure loss due to friction

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total pressure difference across 𝑖 section
ClickTotal
Fan to edit
Pressure
MasterRequirement
title style
• To determine the total fan pressure requirement, 𝑃𝑡 , of a system, the
following equation must be satisfied:

𝑃𝑡 = ෍ ∆𝑝𝑡𝑖 + ෍ ∆𝑝𝑡𝑖
𝑖 𝜖 𝐹𝑢𝑝 𝑖 𝜖 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

• The sum of the pressure losses upstream and downstream of the fan is equal to the fan pressure requirement.
• For systems having more than one supply terminals and more than one return terminals, the system of
equations satisfying all paths from the return paths to the supply paths must all be satisfied.

Figure 1. Sample 9-Section System. (2013 ASHRAE Handbook, 21.3)

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Fan to edit
Pressure
MasterRequirement
title style 𝑃𝑡 = ෍ ∆𝑝𝑡𝑖 + ෍ ∆𝑝𝑡𝑖
𝑖 𝜖 𝐹𝑢𝑝 𝑖 𝜖 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

• For the sample 9-section duct system, there are two return terminals (1
and 2) and three supply terminals (5, 6 and 8). Then there are a total of
six unique paths the air can traverse from the return terminal to the supply
terminal.

Figure 1. Sample 9-Section System. (2013 ASHRAE Handbook, 21.3)

The system of six equations that must be satisfied are: • However, fans are rated based on the static pressure
difference they should overcome. To obtain this,
𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑝𝑡1 + ∆𝑝𝑡3 + ∆𝑝𝑡4 + ∆𝑝𝑡9 + ∆𝑝𝑡7 + ∆𝑝𝑡5
𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑝𝑡1 + ∆𝑝𝑡3 + ∆𝑝𝑡4 + ∆𝑝𝑡9 + ∆𝑝𝑡7 + ∆𝑝𝑡6
𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑝𝑡1 + ∆𝑝𝑡3 + ∆𝑝𝑡4 + ∆𝑝𝑡9 + ∆𝑝𝑡8 𝑃𝑠,𝑓𝑎𝑛 = 𝑃𝑡,𝑓𝑎𝑛 − 𝑃𝑣,𝑜
𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑝𝑡2 + ∆𝑝𝑡4 + ∆𝑝𝑡9 + ∆𝑝𝑡7 + ∆𝑝𝑡7
𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑝𝑡2 + ∆𝑝𝑡4 + ∆𝑝𝑡9 + ∆𝑝𝑡7 + ∆𝑝𝑡6
𝑃𝑡 = ∆𝑝𝑡2 + ∆𝑝𝑡4 + ∆𝑝𝑡9 + ∆𝑝𝑡8

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Pressure Loss
Calculations

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Fluid Resistance
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Duct system losses are caused by the irreversible transformation
of mechanical energy into heat. There are two types of losses:
(1) friction losses and (2) dynamic losses.

Friction Losses
Darcy and Colebrook Equations
For fluid flow in ducts, the friction losses may be calculated using the Darcy equation:
1000𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑝𝑓 = ×
𝐷ℎ 2
where
∆𝑝𝑓 = friction losses, Pa 𝐷ℎ = hydraulic diameter, mm
𝑓 = friction factor, dimensionless 𝜌 = density, kg/m3
𝐿 = duct length, m 𝑉 = velocity, m/s

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Friction Losses
Master title style
Darcy Friction Factor (laminar flow)
• For a region of laminar flow (Re < 2000), the friction
factor is a function of Reynolds number only. The
accepted function is
𝑘
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
where
𝑓 = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless Table 1. Values of k for different duct geometries.

𝑘 = empirical constant based on cross-section of conduit Cross-section Shape 𝑘

𝑅𝑒 = Reynolds Number
Circular 64
𝐷ℎ 𝑉
𝑅𝑒 =
1000𝜈 Square 56.91

𝜈 = kinematic viscosity, 𝑚2 /s
2:1 Rectangle 62.19
For air between 4 and 38°C, the Reynolds number can be
approximated by: 5:1 Rectangle 76.28
𝑅𝑒 = 66.4 𝐷ℎ 𝑉
Parallel Plates 96
𝐷ℎ = hydraulic diameter, mm 10 10
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Friction Losses
Master title style
Darcy Friction Factor (transition flow)
• For a region of transition flow (2000 < Re < 4000), the friction factor
can be calculated using Colebrook’s equation:

1 𝜀 2.51
= −2 log +
𝑓 3.7𝐷ℎ 𝑅𝑒 𝑓

where
𝜀 = material absolute roughness factor, mm

It is to be noted that the equation can not be manipulated to explicitly solve for the friction factor. Therefore, the use of
iterative techniques is recommended.

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Click to edit Ducts
Noncircular Master title style
It should be noted that the empirical equations for the Darcy friction factor
came from experiments involving circular ducts, with their diameter being
used for most calculations.

We define the hydraulic diameter 𝑫𝒉 , as follows:

4 ∗ Cross − sectional Area 4𝐴

𝐷ℎ = =
Perimeter 𝑃

We can use the hydraulic diameter of any non-circular duct as an equivalent

characteristic diameter for analysis.

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Special edit Master Ducts
title style

Rectangular Ducts
In 1948, Huebscher developed the Another study by Heyt and Diaz (1975) developed
an equation to convert round ducts into flat oval
relationship
• Flat Oval Ductsbetween rectangular and ones, again subject to the constraint of equal
circular ducts based on the constraints capacity, resistance to flow, and length.
that the flow rate and flow resistance are
equal for ducts of equal length. 1.55 ∗ 𝐴0.625
𝐷𝑒 =
𝑃0.250

For a rectangular duct with sides 𝑎 and where A is the cross-sectional area of the flat oval
duct, given by:
𝑏, the equivalent round duct diameter 𝐷𝑒 𝜋𝑎2
is given by 𝐴= + 𝑎(𝐴 − 𝑎)
4
and P is the perimeter given by:
𝑃 = 𝜋𝑎 + 2(𝐴 − 𝑎)
1.30 𝑎𝑏 0.625
𝐷𝑒 = A = major axis of the flat oval duct
(𝑎 + 𝑏)0.250 𝑎 = minor axis of the flat oval duct

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*the hydraulic diameter 𝐷ℎ will still be used for relevant computations (Reynolds Number, friction factor, etc.)
Click to edit
Dynamic Losses
Master title style
While the friction losses result from interactions of the fluid with itself and the
walls of the ducts, dynamic losses result from disturbances in the flow. This
results from a change in the direction of flow as is the case for elbows, or from
a change in the cross-sectional area of flow.

Local Loss Coefficients

• It is found that the total pressure loss across fittings (that cause the
described flow disturbances) is only some fraction, C, of the velocity
pressure at the cross section being examined.

• The dimensionless coefficient C, also called the fluid resistance coefficient,

is determined as follows:

∆𝑝𝑡 ∆𝑝𝑡
𝐶= =
𝑉2 𝑝𝑣
𝜌
2
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Local Loss
edit
Coefficients
Master title style
If the local loss coefficient and the velocity pressure at duct component is
known, the total pressure loss (∆𝑝𝑡 ) across the component is given by:

∆𝑝𝑡 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑝𝑣

The table below shows some loss coefficients:

Table 2. Sample components and corresponding loss coefficients (from engineeringtoolbox.com).

Loss
Component or Fitting
Coefficient, 𝐶
90 bend, sharp 1.3

90 bend, rounded (R/D <1) 0.5

45 bend, sharp 0.5

45 bend, rounded (R/D<1) 0.2

Flow from duct to room 1

Flow from room to duct 0.35 15 15

Click to editInterface
Fan/System Master title style
A fan may not perform as effectively as intended if it is not connected to the
duct systems properly.

Fan Outlet Conditions

• In order to maximize the fan’s performance, an adequate length of
discharge duct is required for the velocity profile to recover completely.
• The effective duct length to achieve this is calculated as follows:

𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑜
, for > 13 m/s where
4500
𝐿𝑒 = effective duct length, m Figure 2. Fan discharge duct showing velocity profiles. For
𝐿𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜 = duct velocity, m/s 100% efficient ducting, the velocity profile must recover fully.
(From 2013 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 21.12)
𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑜 = duct area, mm2
, for 𝑉𝑜 ≤ 13 𝑚/𝑠
350

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Click to editInterface
Fan/System Master title style
A fan may not perform as effectively as intended if it is not connected to the
duct systems properly.

Fan Inlet Conditions

• The ideal inlet condition is such that the air enters axially, uniformly, and
without rotation.
• To prevent air swirling and turbulence at the fan inlet, turning vanes and
rounded bends may be used as shown below.

Figure 3. Inlet duct connection with inlet spin (left) and recommended solution for correcting it (right).
(2013 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 21.13) 17 17
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Duct System Design

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Design edit Master title style
Space Pressure Relationships
This is determined by location of fans and
duct system arrangement.
Supply Fans → increases space pressure
Exhaust Fans → decreases space pressure
Space pressure is positive (+) if the supply
exceeds the exhaust, and negative (-) if the
exhaust exceeds the supply
Whether the space pressure is designed to be
positive or negative depends on the space itself.
For example, for air-conditioned spaces a slight
positive pressure is desired to prevent outdoor air
(filled with pollutants) from entering.
Fire and Smoke Management
• Ducts can convey smoke, hot
gases, and fire, accelerating the
spread of a fire.
• NFPA Standard 90A gives the fire safety
requirements for ductwork and
components such as fans, air outlets and
inlets, and air-cooling and -heating
equipment.
• Duct Insulation
• Air-handling ducts should be
thermally insulated to reduce
unwanted heat transfer between the
air inside to the air outside of the
ducts.
• For air-conditioning systems, poor thermal
insulation will change the operating
conditions of the system as well as a
possibility of condensation of moisture in
the outer surfaces of the duct – which
may cause corrosion and damage.
• ASHRAE Standard 90.1 gives minimum
insulation requirements for related
components – however, economic and
thermal considerations may justify higher
insulation levels.
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Click toConsiderations
Design edit Master title style

System Air Leakage Considerations • Leakage Class

Ductwork components must be sealed because of A measure of leakage that relates each section’s maximum
unwanted air leakage into the ducts (upstream of a static pressure difference (during maximum fan airflow) to
fan) or out of it (downstream of a fan). that of a given maximum system fractional leakage.
𝑄
System leakages 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑛൘𝐴
- increase the energy consumption 𝐶𝐿,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
- may cause noise problems 0.65
10∆𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- cause dust and dirt deposits to accumulate on the
exterior of the duct
- makes the system stray from the design operating To get the maximum allowable leakage in each section,
parameters – such as flow capacities and 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
pressures 0.65
𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐶𝐿,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
10
The acceptance criteria for leakage is
- maximum system leakage is 5% of design airflow Note that:
- 3% for all the ductwork combined
- 1% for all duct-mounted components and another ෍ 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
1% for air-handing units
෍ 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑛
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Click toConsiderations
Design edit Master title style

Test Section Leakage

The two equation on the right may combined 𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑛
𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ൘𝐴
allowing the section leakage to be computed 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐶𝐿,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.65
without computing the leakage class. 10∆𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.65

𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑛
= 𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
100 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
The above essentially states that the amount of
leakage in a section should be proportional to the
area of the section relative to the whole system.
𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐶𝐿,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
10
Where
𝐶𝐿,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = leakage class of a section of the duct system, L/s ∙ 10m2 ∙ Pa0.65
𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = percentage leakage at maximum fan airflow, %
𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑛 = maximum fan airflow rate, L/s
𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = total duct system surface area, m2
∆𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = pressure drop across a section, Pa
𝑄𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = rate of leak at the section, L/s
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = surface area of the section, m2
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Click Shape
Duct to editSelection
Master title style
No Space Constraints
In the case that there is adequate space – round
ductwork is preferred over flat oval and rectangular
ducts.
- Round ductwork is lighter as compared to a
rectangular duct of equivalent diameter.
- Round ductwork requires less material because
the perimeter of a round duct is less than that of a
rectangular duct of equivalent diameter.
- Round ductwork have greater resistance to low-
frequency breakout noise which can be attributed to
less turbulent flow patterns in round ducts.
• With Space Constraints
• In the case where space is constrained – usually by the
height of the ceiling, round, rectangular and flat oval
ductwork may be used.
- Rectangular ducts are preferred in terms of mass,
owing to the fact the rectangular ducts have seven
pressure classes on construction standards, while flat
oval ducts have standards for only +2500 Pa.
- Flat oval ducts have better noise attenuation than
rectangular ducts.
- Flat oval ducts require less perimeter than rectangular
ducts for the same equivalent diameter.
- Rectangular duct is available for 1.2, 1.5 and 1.8m
lengths, while spiral round and flat oval ducts are
available in longer lengths.
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Click Shape
Duct to editSelection
Master title style
Round
Best suited when space is not a constraint.
Less expensive in terms of duct material
costs, generates less noise, and minimizes
friction loss which ultimately cuts on the
energy costs (operating cost) on fans.
Fittings may be more expensive.
Flat Oval
• An intermediate option between
round and rectangular ducts.
• Rectangular Ducts
• Easier to use because it has the most
construction standards for various pressures.
• Uses the most material and has the greatest
tendency for flow turbulence.
• Aspect ratios as close to 1:1 as possible is
desired to minimize costs and friction loss.
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Click Design
Duct to edit Methods
Master title style
Equal Friction Method
Ducts are sized for a constant pressure loss per unit
length.
Most universally used means of sizing lower pressure
systems.
If the energy costs are HIGH and duct costs are LOW,
LOW friction rate is more economical.
If the energy costs are LOW and the duct costs are
HIGH,
HIGH friction rate is more economical.
After initial sizing, calculate the total pressure loss for
all duct sections, then resize sections to balance
pressure losses at the junctions.
• Static Regain Method
Ducts downstream of diverging junctions are sized such
that diverging flow junctions have equal static pressures.
• Only applicable to supply air systems.
A maximum velocity is selected for the root section of the
supply subsystem.
• If the energy costs are HIGH and the installed
ductwork costs are LOW
 LOWER initial velocity is more economical
• If the energy costs are LOW and the installed
ductwork costs are HIGH
 HIGHER initial velocity is more economical
One disadvantage is that oversizing of ducts may occur at
long duct runs. Having a downstream section larger than an
upstream section is not desirable.
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 Click to
Equal Friction
edit Master
Method
title
(cont.)
style
Outlined below are the steps in utilizing equal friction method:
1) Compute the air volume flow in every room and branch and the total volume flow
in the system.
This calculation is determined by the cooling and ventilation loads that are required.

2) Determine the maximum acceptable velocity in the main ducts.

Standard values are available in handbooks and charts. These are meant to ensure that the
pressure drop is not excessive and that noise levels are within acceptable limits.
3) Determine the static pressure drop
Use a pressure drop table with the above as input parameters. There are also typical values for the pressure drop: SMACNA
recommends the value to be between 0.8 to 1.0 Pa/m.

4) Determine duct sizes throughout the system.

The static pressure drop acquired is made constant and is used to determine the duct sizes (equivalent diameters are obtained for
rectangular and flat oval duct shapes) throughout the system.

5) Determine the total pressure loss throughout the system.

Using the constant pressure drop, the total pressure loss (or the fan pressure requirement) may be obtained by examining the longest
run through the system. Add the minor losses using the relevant loss coefficients.
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*The velocities at each section is acquired by dividing the flow rate in that section (in m3 /s) by the cross-sectional area of the flow (in m2 ).
Click Design
Duct to edit Methods
Master title style
Equal Friction Method
Ducts are sized for a constant pressure loss per unit
length.
Most universally used means of sizing lower pressure
systems.
If the energy costs are HIGH and duct costs are LOW,
LOW friction rate is more economical.
If the energy costs are LOW and the duct costs are
HIGH,
HIGH friction rate is more economical.
After initial sizing, calculate the total pressure loss for
all duct sections, then resize sections to balance
pressure losses at the junctions.
• Static Regain Method
Ducts downstream of diverging junctions are sized such
that diverging flow junctions have equal static pressures.
• Only applicable to supply air systems.
A maximum velocity is selected for the root section of the
supply subsystem.
• If the energy costs are HIGH and the installed
ductwork costs are LOW
 LOWER initial velocity is more economical
• If the energy costs are LOW and the installed
ductwork costs are HIGH
 HIGHER initial velocity is more economical
One disadvantage is that oversizing of ducts may occur at
long duct runs. Having a downstream section larger than an
upstream section is not desirable.
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Click to
Static Regain
edit Master
Methodtitle
(cont.)
style
• Recall the Bernoulli Equation introduced previously:
𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
∆𝑝𝑡,1−2 = 𝑝𝑠,1 + − 𝑝𝑠,2 + + 𝑔 𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
2 2

Thermal Gravity Effect (∆𝑝𝑠𝑒 )

Total pressure in section 2
Total pressure in section 1
We design using this method by setting the static pressures (𝑝𝑠 ) at diverging junctions equal and ignoring the thermal gravity
effect. Essentially, what we get is that the change in total pressure is equal to the change in velocity pressure. In symbols,

𝜌𝑉12 𝜌𝑉22
∆𝑝𝑡,1−2 = −
2 2

For each main section, the straight through and branch sections are determined through iteration until the section sizes
satisfies the above equation.
After duct sizing through this method, the total pressure is balanced through alteration of the duct sizes. 27 27
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Summary
1) Select a type of HVAC duct system
2) Locate the mechanical/fan rooms
3) Design air diffusion system for each space
4) Locate supply air outlets and determine their size and type
5) Select duct shape
6) Draw a preliminary layout
7) Divide system into sections and designate each with a number
8) Determine the airflow through each section
9) Size the ducts using one of the methods available
10) Resize duct sections if changes are made to the routing, if adjustments are made to
account for noise, and after system pressure loss balancing.
11) Select the appropriate fan size and type.

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Thank You!

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References

ASHRAE. 2012 ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC System and Equipment. 19-2.

ASHRAE. 2013 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals SI Edition. Chapter 21.
Engineering ToolBox, (2008). Duct Sizing - Equal Friction Method. [online] Available at:
https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/equal-friction-method-d_1028.html [Accessed 23 Oct. 2019].
PAROC. Thermal Insulated Ducts. Retrieved from: www.paroc.com/applications/hvac/thermal-insulated-ducts
SMACNA. HVAC Systems – Duct Design Third Edition. 1990. 4
SPOT. Spiral Round Ducts. Retrieved from: www.spotusa.com/products/spiral-round-duct/

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