MPF1533/MPA1113 Course Note

Organizational Theory and Educational

Administration

Lecturer:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. M. Al-Muz-zammil Yasin
(Faculty of Education UTM)
019 7437758

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Basic Concepts

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 An organization or organization :

“a formal group of people with one or more

shared goals”

 Greek word : “Organon “tool”

(Wikipedia.org.

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1. Public Sector Organization
2. Commercial organizations
◦ Sole traders
◦ A franchise
◦ Owner manager
◦ Partnership
◦ Private Companies
◦ Public Limited Companies
◦ Holding Companies
3. Voluntary organizations
◦ Charities
◦ Clubs and associations
◦ Professional bodies
◦ Political Parties
◦ Pressure Group

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Mechanistic versus Organic Organizations
 Burns and Stalker (1961):
 Mechanistic Organizations (stable situation: products and services
are “one size fits all’)
◦ Operate like an efficient machine
◦ Tasks are divided into small parts (logical sequences)
◦ Senior managers exercise downward control using precise instructions and
rules
◦ Boundaries of responsibility are clearly defined and often related to
technical expertise and knowledge
 Organic Organizations
◦ There is a degree of flexibility like living material (disorganization)
◦ Less downward control but more horizontal communication between
colleagues
◦ Considerate amount rules and regulations--kept to a minimum, and
employees are expected to use initiatives
◦ Work best in service and rapidly changing organizations

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 A theory is a based upon a hypothesis and
backed by evidence. A theory presents a
concept or idea that is testable. In science, a
theory is not merely a guess. A theory is a
fact-based framework for describing a
phenomenon. In psychology, theories are
used to provide a model for understanding
human thoughts, emotions and behaviors
(psychology.com)

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 Theories

◦ Used to understand phenomena

◦ Use empirical data
◦ Guided/based on research

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 Teori Dalam Pengurusan dan Pentadbiran
Pendidikan

 Pernyataan idea tentang sesuatu perkara hasil

daripada pengamatan, penglibatan, dan
kajian mendalam yang dilakukan oleh ahli
akademik dalam menerangkan,
merasionalkan, menjangkakan kejadian
(phenomena/events), perlakuan, dan
tindakan yang berlaku; atau seharusnya
dilakukan demi kebaikan ahli atau organisasi.
 Teori dalam bidang akademik diterbitkan
dalam penulisan buku dan journal.
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 Menambah / meluaskan maklumat
 Mengesahkan sesuatu
 Menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah /
Membuat sesuatu keputusan
 Menyebar dan meningkatkan ilmu

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 Organizational theory:

◦ Give explanation to things happening in

organization
◦ Make prediction of forthcoming events
◦ Guide leaders and managers actions

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• Organization can be viewed from three
systems perspectives:

1. Rational Systems Perspective

2. Natural Systems Perspective
3. Open Systems Perspectives

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 JIKA SEKIRANYA ANDA DILANTIK SEBAGAI
SEORANG PENGETUA DI SEBUAH SEKOLAH,
APAKAH 4 LANGKAH PENAMBAHBAIKAN
YANG AKAN DIMASUKKAN KE DALAM
AGENDA PERUBAHAN ANDA?

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 “Organizations as formal instruments
designed to achieve specific goals”:

◦ Set of organized actions

◦ Implementation

◦ Goals achievement with maximum

efficiency

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 Based on the human relation approach of the
1930s
 View organizations as “primarily social
groups trying to adapt and survive in their
particular situation”.
 Formal goals and structure have little to do
with what is actually happening in
organizations (Hoy, 1997, p.29)
 Emphasizes individuals over structure

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Three experiments

 1. Three departments: illumination was increased at intervals.

Results: increased production rates did not correspond with
increased lighting or vice versa
 2. Two groups of experiment. Intensities were varied in
experimental group while held constant in the control group. Result:
Both groups showed increases in production rates (nearly identical
 3. Two groups of experiment. Lighting for experimental group was
decreased but held constant in the control group. Result: Production
rates increased in the test group until the light was so poor.

 Hawthorne studies was then the basis for upcoming research by two
Harvard professors (Elton Mayo, and Fritz Roethlisberger) from
1927-1932 (Hoy and Miskel, 2008).
 One generalization became clear almost immediately. The workers’
behaviour did not conform to the official job specifications. An
informal organization emerged that affected performance (Hoy and
Miskel, 2008; p.14)
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 One generalization became clear almost
immediately. The workers’ behaviour did not
conform to the official job specifications. An
informal organization emerged that affected
performance (Hoy and Miskel, 2008; p.14)

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Social System/Open System
Theory

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 Views organizations as not only
influenced by environments but also
dependent on them.
 Synthesis both the rational and natural
perspectives
 Organizational behavior could not be
isolated from external forces
◦ E.g. Competition, resources, political pressures
affect the internal workings of organization

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1. Inputs 7. Homeostasis
2. Transformation 8. Entropy
3. Outputs 9. Equifinality
4. Feedback
5. Boundaries
6. Environment

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1. Schools are open system: affected by the
values of the community, by politics, and by
history.
2. Social systems are peopled. People act on
the basis of their needs as well as their
roles and statuses. In schools, people
perform the roles of administrators,
teacher, student, custodian, etc.

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3. Social systems consist of interdependent
parts, characteristics, and activities that
contribute to and receive from the whole.
4. Social systems are goal oriented
5. Social systems are normative
6. Social systems are sanction bearing
(authoritative)
7. Social systems are political
8. Social systems are conceptual and relative

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 Making sense of organizations:
1. The Structural Frame (rational)
2. The Human Resource Frame (natural)
3. The Political Frame
4. The Symbolic Frame (budaya)

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 Organizations exist to achieve established
goals and objectives
 For any organization a structural form can be
designed and implemented to fit its particular
set of circumstances (such as goals,
strategies, environment, technology, and
people).
 Specialization permits higher levels of
individual expertise and performance.

continue

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 Coordination and control are essential to
effectiveness.
◦ To coordinate: authority, rules, policies, standard
operating procedures, information systems,,
meetings, lateral relationships, or a variety of more
informal techniques.
 Organizational problems originate from
inappropriate structures or inadequate
systems and can be resolved through
restructuring or developing new systems.
(Bolman and Deal, 1997).

Continue

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 Organizations exist to serve human needs
(rather than the reverse.)
 Organizations and people need each other.
(Organizations need ideas, energy; people
need salaries, work opportunities.)
 When the fit between the individual and the
organization is poor, one or both will suffer;
individuals will either be exploited, or will
seek to exploit the organizations, or both.

Continue

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1. Physiological needs, such as food and water
2. Safety needs, such as being free from fear
3. Belonging and love needs; positive relations
with others
4. Esteem needs valuing self and others
5. Self-actualization and developing to one's
fullest.

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 Organizations are coalitions composed of
varied individuals and interest groups (for
example, hierarchical levels, departments,
professional groups, gender and ethnic
subgroups.).
 There are enduring differences among
individuals and groups in their values,
preferences, beliefs, and perceptions of
reality.
 Most of the important decisions in
organizations involve the allocation of scarce
resources: they are decisions about who gets
what.

Continue

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 Because of scarce resources and enduring
differences, conflict is central to
organizational dynamics, and power is the
most important resource.
 Organizational goals and decisions emerge
from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying
for position among members of different
coalitions (Bolman and Deal 1991).

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 What is most important about any event is
not what happened, but what it means.
 Events and meanings are loosely coupled: the
same events can have different meanings
because of the way individuals interpret their
experiences.
 Many of the most significant events and
processes in organizations are ambiguous or
uncertain, it is often difficult or impossible to
know what happened, why it happened, or
what will happen next.

Continue

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 The greater the ambiguity and uncertainty,
the harder it is to use rational approaches to
analysis, problem solving, and decision
making.
 Human beings create symbols to resolve
confusion, increase predictability, and
provide direction. Events may remain
illogical, random, fluid, and meaningless, but
human symbols make them seem otherwise.
 Many organizational events and processes
are important more for what they express
than for what they produce: they are secular
myths, rituals, ceremonies, and sagas that
help people find meaning and order in their
lives (Bolman and Deal 1997).

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Structures in School

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 Structure:
◦ “Simply as the ways in which organizations divides
its labor into tasks and then achieves coordination
among them” (Henry Mintzberg, 1979)

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 Penekanan Perspektif Structure:
◦ Matlamat/sasaran/KPI
◦ Carta organisasi
◦ Hirarki autoriti
◦ Proses kerja yang standard
◦ Hubungan Formal
◦ Peraturan
◦ Pemantauan
◦ Penyeliaan ketat

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 Strategic Apex
 Middle Line
 Technostructure
 Support Staff
 Operating Core

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1. Simple Structure
2. Machine Bureaucracy
3. Professional Bureaucracy
4. Divisionalized Form
5. Adhocracy

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www.emeraldinsight.com

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 Idea Birokrasi merupakan satu contoh
perspektf/kerangka struktur

 Selain itu terdapat:

◦ MBO
◦ MBWA
◦ ISO
◦ MQA
◦ etc

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 Division of Labor
 Impersonal orientation
 Hierarchy of Authority
 Rules and regulation
 Career orientation

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 Bureauracy is a management approach that
focuses on assigning tasks to individuals in
the organization and control the activities
involved to increase effectiveness and
efficiency.

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 Function
Bureaucracy Characteristics

1. Hierarchy of Authority Compliance

2. Division of Labor Expertise
3. Impersonal Rationality
Orientation
4. Rules and Regulation Continuity and Uniformity
5. Career Orientation Incentive

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◦ Reasons of why schools can be categorized into a
bureaucratic organization.
◦ The function of each bureaucratic characteristic by
giving specific examples.

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 Organizations exist to achieve established
goals and objectives
 For any organization a structural form can be
designed and implemented to fit its particular
set of circumstances (such as goals,
strategies, environment, technology, and
people).
 Specialization permits higher levels of
individual expertise and performance.

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 Five basic coordinating mechanisms
according to Henry Mintzberg (1979) are:
◦ Direct supervision
◦ Standardization of work
◦ Standardization of output
◦ Standardization of skills
◦ Mutual adjustment (penyesuaian dua hala?)

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 Bolman and Deal (1991)
◦ Differentiation versus integration
◦ Gap versus overlaps
◦ Underuse versus overload
◦ Clarity versus creativity
◦ Autonomy versus interdependence
◦ Centralization versus decentralization
◦ Goalless versus goal bound

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 Human Resources in School
(Sumber Manusia di Sekolah)

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 Organizations exist to serve human
needs rather than the reverse
◦ Organisasi wujud bagi memberi khidmat
kepada manusia
 People and organizations needs each
other: organizations need ideas,
energy, and talent; people need
careers, salaries, and opportunities.
◦ Manusia dan organisasi saling memerlukan

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 When the fit between individual and system is
poor, one or both suffer: Individuals will be
exploited or will exploit the organization---or
both will become victims
◦ Apabila organisasi dan manusia tidak serasi individu,
organisasi atau kedua-duanya akan bermasalah.

 A good fit benefits both: Individuals find

meaningful and satisfying work, and
organizations get the talent and energy they
need to succeed.
◦ Yang paling baik ialah individu berpuas hati dalam
kerja mereka dan organisasi mendapat bakat dan
tenaga untuk berjaya.

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 How does everybody get
satisfied?
Bagaimana boleh semua orang berpuashati?

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 “To the extent that these expectations
are fulfilled by their experiences in the
classroom, these teachers are likely to
feel satisfied with their choice of
career, but if their expectations are
not met, they may feel disappointed
and even cheated” (Seyfarth, 2005,
p.114)

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 The discrepancies between what is and what
should be? (Altschuld, 1994)
◦ Perbezaan antara jangkaan dan apa yang
sedia ada

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 500 (kereta)  Should be:
 400 (rumah) ◦ 2350 x 12= 28200
 200 (minyak kereta)  What is :
 600 (makan) ◦ 2200 X 12= 26400
 300 (emak/ayah)  Discrepancy:
◦ RM1800.00 (needs)
 200 (utk kahwin)
 050 (Tabung Haji?)
 100 (bil
elektrik/air)

M. Al-Muz-zammil Yasin Pengurusan

sekolah
1. Physiological needs (keperluan
fisiologi), such as food, water, physical
healt, and comfort)
2. Safety needs (keperluan
keselamatan)---such as being free from
fear, attack, threat)
3. Belonging and love needs (keperluan
disayangi) eg. positive relations and
love with others

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4. Esteem needs (Keperluan dihargai) to
feel valued and to value others
5. Self-actualization (needs to develop
/actualize to one's fullest potential,
fulfillment of life goals,

“Individuals are continually in the process

becoming more and more of what they are
uniquely capable of becoming”
--Cherrington (1991) in Hoy and Miskel (2008)

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A. Invest in people (Melabor dalam manusia)
1. Hiring Right and Rewarding well
2. Providing Security
3. Promoting from within
4. Training and education
5. Sharing the wealth

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1. Hiring and Rewarding Well
(Pengambilan dan Ganjaran terbaik)
◦ Hanya mencari calon yang terbaik bgi mengisi
jawatan yang boleh memberikan “the best
customer service”.
◦ Memberikan ganjaran jika ahli perform good.

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2. Providing Job Security
eg. Lincoln company has honored a policy not
to lay off employee with more than 3 yrs
experience.

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3. Promoting From Within
Meningkatkan kepercayaan dan kesetiaan
Meningkat performance (performance
incentive)
 Porras (1994) found that highly successful
corporation almost never hired a CEO from the
outside.

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4. Training and education
◦ Mengelakkan poor service, poor quality of
products, and costly mistakes.
◦ Motorola found a gain of $29.00 for every
dollar invested in Sales training.
◦ Learning can take place when:
 There are good mentors who teach others
 Management that lets people try new things as
much as possible
 Good exchange with the environment

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5. Sharing the Wealth
◦ Profit yang dikongsi bersama tidak hanya
eksekutif dan shareholders.
◦ Share ownership with ground floor efforts
(berkongsi kejayaan dengan orang bawahan)

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B. Empowerment and redesign of work
(Penurunan kuasa dan penyusunan semula
kuasa)
Boleh dilakukan melalui 3 cara:
1. Autonomy and participation
2. Job Enrichment
3. Teaming

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 Autonomy and Participation (Kuasa autnomi
dan Peluang Penyertaan)
◦ Memberikan peluang kepada ahli supaya
boleh “influence decision making and work
conditions.

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◦ Job enrichment (Pengayaan kerja)
 Kerja yang lebih mencabar dan menggunakan lebih
kemahiran
 Pengurusan perlu memberikan mereka
kebolehpercayaan dan peluang untuk merancang
pengayaan kerja
 kerja
◦ Teaming
 Team diwujudkan bagi mengatasi masalah yang
tertentu
 Autonomous team ( sepertimana di Toyota, Proctor
and Gamble \, Satrn dll).

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Power and Politics in School
Setting

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 Authority is the legal right to say “yes” and
“no.”
◦ (hak legal untuk mengatakan yes or no)
◦ Authority provides the basis for legitimate control
of administrators, teachers and students.
◦ A primary source of control is formal authority that
vested in the office or position and not in the
particular person who performs the official role.

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 Weber (1947): Power:
◦ The probability that one actor within a social
relationship will be in position to carry out his own
will despite resistance”
 Kebolehan melaksanakan apa yang ingin dilakukan
walaupun terdapat rintangan.

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1. Personal Power (Referent Power)
Kuasa Individu
2. Position Power (Legitimate Power)
Kuasa Kedudukan
3. Capability Power (Expert Power)
Kuasa Kebolehan
4. Reward Power
Kuasa Ganjaran
5. Coercive Power
Kuasa kekerasan

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 Politics is individual or group behavior that is
informal, ostensibly parochial, typically
divisive, and above all, in the technical sense,
illegitimate---sanctioned neither by formal
authority, accepted ideology, nor certified
expertise.
 Politik adalah individu atau kumpulan yang informal,
pada zahirnya akan narrow-minded, biasanya bersifat
pemecah, dan yang paling penting ialah tak sah—
tidak diganjari atau didenda oleh autoriti, ideologi,
atau, pakar dalam bidang.
 Mintzberg (1983) Power in and around
Organization

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• Political games are played:

• To sustain power
• To maintain power
• To enhance power.

• Goals of Political Games:

• To resist authority
• To counter resistance to authority
• To build a power base
• To defeat opponents
• To change the organization

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 Although there are powerful individuals, the
political arenas of organizations are
composed of coalitions of individuals ---
groups who bargain among themselves to
determine the distribution of power.
-Bolman and Deal: Reframing
Organization: Artistry, Choice
and Leadership

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 Politics is the study of the exercise of power.
 This means that it has a huge impact on your
daily life!
 Most of the key issues in our society - such
as crime, poverty and the environment - are
political.

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1. Organizations are coalitions of
various individuals and interest
groups
2. They are enduring differences in
values, beliefs, information,
interests, and perceptions.
3. Most important decisions involve the
allocation of scarce resources—who
gets what

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4. Scarce Resources and enduring
differences give conflict a central role
in organizational dynamics and make
power the most important resources.
◦ Sumber yang sedikit menyebabkan
siapa yang berkuasa menang

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 Lencioni reveals the five dysfunctions which go to
the very heart of why teams even the best ones-
often struggle. According to the book, the five
dysfunctions are[3]:
1. Absence of trust
2. Fear of conflict—seeking artificial
harmony over constructive passionate
debate
3. Lack of commitment
4. Avoidance of accountability
5. Inattention to results
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5. Goals and decisions emerge from
bargaining, negotiation, and
jockeying for position among
different stakeholders.
◦ Bargaining (tawar menawar,
rundingan, dan jockeying) di antara
pihak yang berkepentingan.

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 Political Tactic Purpose

1. Ingratiating Gain favors by doing favors

2. Networking Influentials Gain influence through networking

3. Managing Information Manipulate information to your advantage

4. Managing Impressions Create a positive imagine by appearance

5. Coalition Building Band together with others to achieve goals

6. Scapegoating Shift the blame to others for bad outcomes

7. Increasing Indispensability Make yourself indispensable (important)

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• Insurgency game to resist formal authority
• Sponsorship game to advance quickly
• Alliance-building game to build power
• Empire-building game to build power
• Expertise game to build power
• Rival camps game to defeat competitors
• Whistling-blowing game to halt bad practices
• Young-Turks game to change the power
structure

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Hirschman (1970) “Exit, Voice, and
Loyalty” observes that participants in
any system have there basic options:

◦ Leave; Find Another Place --- Exit

◦ Stay and Play ; Try to change --- Voice

◦ Stay and contribute as expected; be a loyal

member ---Loyalty

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Culture in Organization/School

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 There are many long, complex definitions
of a culture.
◦ Terdapat banyak definisi budaya
 Here's a simple one: A culture is "the way
we do things around here.“
◦ Cara kita bekerja di sini

 Ralph Linton (1893-1953)

◦ (http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/klmno/linton_ra
lph.html)
 Budaya adalah cara hidup

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Culture:

The values (nilai), beliefs (kepercayaan),

behavior (tingkahlaku) and material objects
(benda/objek) that constitute a people’s way
of life (Macionis, 1997)

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 Definition:
“Shared orientations that hold the unit
together and give it a distinctive
identity” (Hoy & Miskel, 1997)
Orientasi/kelakuan yang dikongsi yang
menyatukan ahlinya dan memberikan
mereka identiti yang unik.

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 Are trust levels high among the team
members? (Tahap kepercayaan tinggi)
 Do people have a sense of loyalty to the
organization? (kesetiaan kepada organisasi)

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• Creates distinctions among organizations
• Provides the organization with a sense of
identity
• Facilitates the development of commitment to
the group
• Enhances stability
• Provide appropriate standards for behavior
• Guides and shapes members’ attitudes and
behavior

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 Level 1: Culture as Shared Norms
◦ Norms: Unwritten and informal expectations
that influence behavior.
 Jangkaan-jangkaan tidak rasmi yang
mempengaruhi tingkahlaku

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 Level 2: Culture as Shared Values
◦ Values: Conceptions of what is desirable
 Konsep tentang apa yang diingini dalam
organisasi
◦ Values define what members should do to
be successful in organization
 Nilai yang dikongsi menentukan apa yang perlu
dilakukan untuk berjaya

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 Openness
 Trust
 Cooperation
 Intimacy
 Teamwork

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 3. Culture as Tacit Assumptions
◦ Hidden assumptions and beliefs embedded
in the organization
◦ Anggapan yang tersembunyi yang tertanam
dalam organisasi

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 Menyelaras dan mengelola dari segi disiplin
kakitangan
 Menjelaskan peranan organisasi sekolah
 Pandai membuat sebarang keputusan
 Agen perubahan sosial dan sekolah
 Pengurus pelbagai program
 Ketua penilai pelbagai aspek (akademik dan
bukan akademik)
 Iklim sekolah yang sihat dan suasana
persekitaran yang memberangsangkan proses
pembelajaran
 Merancang keperluan staf MPF 1533 Muzz
 Because the wise organization won't leave
the evolution of its workplace environment
to chance. The most important asset of any
organization is its people, and nothing
affects the day to day lives of your people
more than the culture in which they work.
◦ Aset yang paling penting bagi organisasi
ialah tenaga manusia dan budaya yang baik
adalah perlu bagi individu yang berada di
dalam organisasi.

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 Culture provides the organization with a sense
of identity
◦ Rasa kekitaan dalam organisasi
 Conflicts are handled swiftly and skillfully.
◦ Konflik dapat ditangani secara cepat dan
berkesan
 Ideas flow more smoothly.
◦ Pendapat dapat dikongsi dengan mudah

continue

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 Employees enjoy - and brag about - working in
such environments.
◦ Ahli merasa seronok dan berbangga bekerja
dalam organisasi tersebut
 Turnover is reduced
◦ bilangan ahli yang keluar-masuk berkurang
 Inter-team cooperation is enhanced.
◦ Meningkatkan kerjasama antara kumpulan

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 High profile problems are prevented.
◦ Masalah yang serius dapat dielakkan
 Culture enhances stability in the social
systems
◦ Menstabilkan organisasi

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Silos free workplace?

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Kepercayaan kepada division of labor (expertise)
Organisasi besar yang mempunyai bil ahli/jabatan
yang banyak
Kurangnya majlis bersama sesama ahli berlainan
jabatan/panitia
Kurangnya perjumpaan bersama dengan pihak
atasan organisasi
Loyalty kepada kumpulan atau jabatan/panitia
masing-masing
Permainan politik yang kuat dalam organisasi
Distrust antara satu jabatan dengan yang lain

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 Workplace silos:

 These are groups or departments within an

organisation that work in a vacuum with little
functional access to other groups, or little
communication with them.
 Kumpulan atau jabatan dalam organisasi
yang bekerja “dalam vakum” dalam keadaan
kurang capaian atau hubungan dengan
kumpulan lain (dalam organisasi tersebut)

 Reference: CEOinstitute.com MPF 1533 Muzz

 Budaya saling tidak mempercayai
 Shaperkongsian maklumat kurang
 collaborating yang rendah dalam pekerjaan
 Perubahan sukar berlaku
 Matlamat organisasi diabaikan

MPF 1533 Muzz

1. Create a unified vision
2. Work towards achieving a common goal
3. Motivate and incentivize
4. Execute and measure
5. Collaborate and Create

Brent Gleeson
http://www.forbes.com/sites/brentgleeson/2013/10/02/the-silo-mentality-how-to-break-down-the-barriers/2/

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 Kerjasama yang erat antara guru dan
juga antara guru dan pengetua.
 Pengetua mendengar dan bersikap
terbuka terhadap keluhan staf.
 Kebolehan professional guru dihormati,
diberi kebebasan tanpa “close
scrutiny”
 Guru komited kepada kerja dan rapat
sesama mereka.

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• Pengetua bersifat autokratik dan
“rigid”
• Pengetua tidak menghormati
professionalisme guru dan kehendak
(needs) mereka
• Pengetua akan memberikan kerja yang
terlampau banyak.
• Guru tidak mengendahkan karenah
Pengetua malah mereka bersifat
professional, menghormati sesama
mereka dan bersifat produktif.

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• Pengetua bersifat terbuka dan
professional
• Pengetua menghormati professionalisme
guru dan kurang mengaradh (low
directiveness)
• Gurutidak menghormati professionalisme
pengetua malah mensabotaj dan tidak
mengendahkannya
• Hubungan antara guru juga rendah (low
collegial environment)
• Guru tidak bersikap professional dan
tidak melaksanakan tugas dengan betul

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 Pengetua membebankan guru dan
bersikap tidak professional
 Guru juga begitu, tidak mengendahkan
Pengetua
 Hubungan juga rendah antara guru
 Keadaan yang “chaotic” dan tidak
memberangsangkan

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 Motivation and Satisfaction in
Organization
(Motivasi dan Kepuasan dalam
Organisasi)

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 Being a motivated student doesn’t mean you
are always excited or fully committed to your
study, but it does mean you will complete the
tasks set for you even when assignments or
practicals are difficult, or seem uninteresting.

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 Physiological needs
 Safety and security needs
 Belonging and Love Needs
 Esteem needs
 Self Actualization

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 So while it is broadly true that people move up (or down)
the hierarchy, depending what's happening to them in
their lives, it is also true that most people's motivational
'set' at any time comprises elements of all of the
motivational drivers.

 For example, self-actualizers (level 5 - original model) are

mainly focused on self-actualizing but are still motivated
to eat (level 1) and socialise (level 3). Similarly, homeless
folk whose main focus is feeding themselves (level 1)
and finding shelter for the night (level 2) can also be,
albeit to a lesser extent, still concerned with social
relationships (level 3), how their friends perceive them
(level 4), and even the meaning of life (level 5 - original
model).

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 For example,
If you really admire your friend's dad because
he is an army officer, it means you hold him
in high esteem.

if you lookdown to yourself because of being

obese, you have low self esteem.

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 Low self esteem among kids may be caused
by:
◦ Parenting style e.g. Yelling, downgrading
◦ Divorced parent
◦ Lack of friends
◦ Physical appearance

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 Hygienes  Motivators (Satisfaction)
(Dissatisfaction) ◦ Achievements
◦ Interpersonal Relations ◦ Recognition
with subordinates ◦ Work itself
◦ Interpersonal relations (Challenging)
with peers ◦ Responsibility
◦ Supervisions ◦ Advancement
(technical)
◦ Policy and
administration
◦ Working condition
◦ Personal life

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 People resist and struggle against pressure
from external sources
 Individual autonomy can be developed by:
◦ Lesser hierarchical control
◦ Activities and programs that emphasize setting
realistic goals
◦ personally planning goals
◦ accepting personal responsibility for actions

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 Beliefs about own ability influence motivation
and performance
 Ability (those who believe that they can
improve their ability are more likely to set
learning goals that are moderately difficult
and challenging…

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 Equity theory suggests that the key
mechanism for such decision is social
comparison.
 We compare our ratio of inputs (contribution)
to output (receipts). We don’t choose just
anyone for such comparisons, but rather we
select those that are similar to us in various
ways.

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 Self efficacy: A person’s judgement about his
or her capability to organize and execute a
course of action that is required to attain a
certain level of performance (Bandura, 2005)

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Vroom’s Expectancy theory
1. Expectancy
◦ Belief that I can accomplish the task
2. Instrumentality
◦ Belief that good performance will be noticed and
rewarded
3. Valence:
◦ Assessment of the attractiveness or value of the
rewards

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 Force of Motivation

Expectancy + Instrumentality + Valence

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1. Challenging goals 7. Personal/Profession
2. Structure al Growth
3. Tangible Rewards 8. Variety
4. Helping People 9. Interesting Work
5. Affiliation 10. Influence or control
6. Working Conditions 11. Autonomy

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 Rigidly prescribed curriculum
 Lack of Resources
 Pressure from State or Federal to
improve performance
 Interruptions and distractions by
administration works/forms
 Teaching in subjects that they are not
qualified to teach
 Problems working at risks students

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Communication
(Komunikasi)

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 Communication:
◦ Sharing messages or ideas, or attitudes in ways that
produce a degree of understanding between two or
more people.

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1. Instructions about specific tasks
2. Rationale about why task needs to be done
and how it relates to other tasks
3. Information about organizational
procedures and practices
4. Feedback on performance levels of
individuals
5. Information regarding the organization’s
goals
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1. Routine operational messages
2. Reports on problems
3. Suggestions for Improvement
4. Information on how subordinates feel about
each other and the job

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 Subordinates have a tendency to emphasize
positive information, withhold negative data,
communicate what “the boss wants to hear”
(Miliken and Morrison, 2003)

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 Myers and Myers (1982) menerangkan bahawa
komunikasi merupakan satu proses yang
melibatkan proses “membina makna dan
tanggapan terhadap perkara yang berlaku
sekeliling mereka”
 Communication is the process where people
construct meaning and develop expectations
about what is happening around them
 Mereka membina makna menggunakan simbol-
simbol yang dibuat daripada gambar,
perkataan, atau mimik muka atau isyarat bagi
mewakili idea, perasaan, niat kita)
 Using symbols, words, signals etc to represent
idea, intention, emotion etc)

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 Human will develop common symbol system
or language for sharing their experiences
with others .
◦ Manusia akhirnya akan menggunakan
sistem simbol yang biasanya digunakan dan
diterimapakai oleh semua apabila berkongsi
pengalaman/berinteraksi dengan orang lain.

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 Simbol simbol yang digunakan ini
diubahsuai dan ditambahbaik oleh kita
melalui interaksi dan pemerhatian
terhadap tingkah laku manusia hasil
daripada penggunaan simbol tersebut.

 Day in and out we improvise the

symbols used thru interaction and
observation

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 Hasil daripada pebelajaran dari pemerhatian
tersebut, manusia akan tahu cara membina
makna (construct meaning) yang boleh
diterima oleh manusia sekelililing mereka.
 Mereka juga akan membina jangkaan tentang
reaksi dan pemikiran pihak yang lain.

 Thru observations we know the best way to

construct meaning to be accepted by people
around us, as well as our expectation on
people reactions and thinking

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 One way communication (komunikasi sehala)
◦ Berlaku bila A memberitahu B sesuatu
◦ Dimulakan oleh A dan terhenti pada individu B
◦ Metaphor: Injecting information into another person
(menyuntik maklumat)

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◦ Mengutamakan kemahiran dalam berkomunikasi
pada pihak penghantar (sender), jadi pentadbir
akan memikirkan benar-benar apa yang akan
dikatakan (will accurately articulate the message)
◦ Pengantar akan membekalkan “specificity” dalam
arahan dan penerangan.
◦ Komunikasi sehala juga menghadkan sembang
kosong, sembang masalah peribadi, perkongsian
maklumat yang tidak perlu (limit unnecessary
information sharing)
◦ Komunikasi sehala mengutamakan keberkesanan
dan pencapaian matlamat ( aims: “efficiency” dan
“goal achievement”)
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◦ Clampitt (1991) menegaskan bahawa seringkali
disalahtanggap bahawa eskpressi yang efektif sama
dengan komunikasi yang efektif. (effective
expression = effective communication?)
◦ Walaupun sender secara jelasnya menerangkan
sesuatu idea, tidak semestinya ini menjamin bahwa
ideanya itu difahami sebagaimana yang
dikehendaki. (The idea could be understood
wrongly)

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 Clampit percaya bahawa komunikasi sehala
dipilih berdasarkan dua andaian yang salah
 (people choose one way communication due
to two misunderstandings:
◦ Andaian pertama ialah bahawa penerima
merupakan “pemproses maklumat yang pasif tetapi
sebenarnya manusia adalah sentiasa aktif dalam
membina semula mesej dan maknanya yang
tersendiri.
◦ Human are passive information processor?Actually,
humans are active information processor.
◦ Andaian yang kedua ialah bahawa perkataan akan
membawa kepada makna Tetapi sebaliknya,
perkataan dipengaruhi oleh bagaimana ianya
digunakan,konteks ianya digunakan, orang
menggunakannya, dan orang yang mendengar
◦ Words are seen as containers of meaning). Actually,
words are used and understood in context).
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 Dalam komunikasi dua hala kedua-dua
individu A dan B akan memberi dan
menerima mesej. Setiap individu akan
memulakan mesej dan mesej-mesej ini akan
mempengaruhi mesej yang seterusnya.
 Both persons inititiate and then influence the
next message(s). “The concept of dialogue”
 Ianya sama konsep dengan “dialogue”
sepertimana yang diterangkan oleh Burbules
(1993).

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 Conversation
 Debate
 Inquiry
 Instruction

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 Bincangkan dalam kumpulan anda 2 halangan
kepada komunikasi yang berkesan. Beserta
dengan contoh yang ada di sekolah. Discuss
in your group and identify real example of
barriers to effective communication
(minimum of four)

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 The principle of participation (Prinsip
Penyertaan) :
◦ Penyertaan adalah secara sukarela, keduanya
terlibat, dan terdapat proses bertanya, mencuba
dan mendengar idea baru dan berbagai
 The principle of commitment (Prinsip
Komitment)
◦ Perbualan mestilah dibenarkan berlaku meskipun
ianya bersifat pemecah (divisive) dan terdapat
pihak yang mempunyai pandangan berbeza.
 The principle of Reciprocity (Prinsip
Salingtukar)
◦ Perbincangan mestilah di lakukan dalam
semangat saling-menghormati individu,
kedudukan dan kepakarannya
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 Communication
 Communication
Media
Richness
◦ Face to face
◦ Highest
◦ Telephone
◦ High
◦ Email
◦ Written Personal
◦ Moderate
◦ Written Formal
◦ Low
◦ Numeric Formal
◦ Lowest

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 Non verbal signals (isyarat bukan verbal)
◦ Segala tingkah laku yang mempunyai nilai
komunikasi yang dilakukan di hadapan seseorang
yang tidak menggunakan perkataan:
 Raised eyebrow
 Tapping the fingers
 Scratching head
 Crossed arms etc.

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 Non verbal symbols
 Body language or gestures
 Physical items or artifacts with symbolic value
 Space-territoriality and personal space
 Touch-hugging, patting
 Time- promptness, tardiness, amount
 Other non verbal symbols-intonation,
accents, pitc, intensity of the voice

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 Paralanguage:
◦ A gray area between verbal and non verbal
◦ Terletak antara verbal dan tak verbal
◦ Umpamanya, dengusan, ketawa, humming dll
◦ Paralanguage boleh menunjukkan emosi individu
pada masa itu.

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 Congruence of verbal and non verbal
messages (kesamaan dalam mesej verbal dan
tak verbal)
◦ Verbal and non-verbal messages must be
consistent for effective understanding
◦ Verbal dan tak verbal mestilah selari bagi
meningkat kefahaman dalam komunikasi
◦ “If you have any questions or problems, please
come by my office, and we’ll discuss the situation.
My door is always open.”

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 If the person is met at the door, ushered to
a chair, and a productive conference
results, the verbal message is reinforced
and the meaning is understood. If however
the administrator remains in the chair
behind the desk, leaves the staff member
standing or seats him or her across the
room and continues to write, the verbal
message is contradicted. When verbal and
non verbal message conflict, a problem of
meaning results.
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 Meaning=
Information +
Communicators + Media
+ Context

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 Di dalam organisasi terdapat dua saluran
komunikasi:
◦ Formal
◦ Tidak formal
 Formal communication channels traverse
the organization through the hierarchy of
authority (Barnard, 1938)
◦ Mengikut Barnard (1938), saluran
komunikasi formal bergerak melalui hirarki
autoriti.

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1.The channels of communication must be known
Saluran komunikasi mestilah
diketahui dan diterima umum
2.The channel must link every member of the
organization
Mesti menghubungkan semua ahli
dalam organisasi (semua menerima
maklumat)

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3. Lines of communication must be direct and
as short as possible
Komunikasi mesti dapat berlaku secara terus
dan ringkas
4. Every communication is authenticated as
being from the correct person occupying
the position and within his or her authority
to issue the message.
Semua komunikasi mestilah dibuat dalam
jangkauan autoriti ahli tersebut.

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 Seringkali digelar “grapevines”
 Ianya muncul dalam organisasi walaupun
sistem komunikasi formal nampak kuat dalam
organisasi.
 Biasanya komunikasi tidak formal lebih
tertumpu kepada fakta yang ada dalam
organisasi (facts), pendapat (opinions),
jangkaan (suspicions), gossip, khabar angin
(rumors), juga kadangkala arahan-arahan yang
datang dari pengurusan.

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1. Boleh mengetahui kualiti aktiviti di sekolah
menerusi maklumbalas (feedbacks) yang
dibekalkan
Dengan merisik maklumat dalam komunikasi
informal feedback yang diberikan selalunya
ikhlas dan tidak berselindung.
Ini adalah kerana terdapat kecenderungan
ahli untuk melaporkan perkara yang positif
sahaja (Hoy and Miskel (1996).

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2. Saluran komunikasi tak formal boleh
memberikan perkhidmatan terhadap
keperluan yang tak dapat disediakan oleh
saluran komunikasi formal
Dengan menggunakan komunikasi tidak
formal, perkhidmatan yang diterima
mungkin lebih baik.
Better services thru informal
communication?

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3. Saluran komunikasi tak formal berguna
sebagai alternatif terutama apabila
komunikasi formal tersekat oleh halangan
hirarki (alternative to formal communication
barriers)
◦ Terutamanya dalam urusan yang membabitkan
karenah birokrasi yang banyak, komunikasi tak
formal berkesan untuk “helps to cut the red
tape”.

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1. Komunikasi mestilah ditingkatkan melalui
beberapa cara supaya ketidaktepatan
komunikasi dapat dikurangkan, kejelasan
dapat ditambahkan, dan mesej yang
disampaikan menjadi kaya (clarity and
richness of message)

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1. Sending skills
◦ Kemahiran menghantar maklumat mestilah
ditingkatkan
◦ Maklumat mestilah jelas dan difahami
(message should be well understood )
◦ Maklumat tidak menimbulkan konotasi yang
berbeza (no different connotation) oleh
orang yang menerimanya

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 Menggunakan bahasa yang terus (direct
language)
 Membekalkan maklumat yang lengkap
(complete information) kepada pendengar
 Noise (gangguan) mestilah dikurangkan
 Media mestilah diperbanyakkan
 Face to face mestilah digunakan bila ingin
menyampaikan mesej yang kompleks.

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 Instruction:
◦ Draw no more than four straight
lines through the nine dots
without lifting the pen/pencil
from the paper.
◦ Dengan melukis tidak lebih daripada empat
garisan yang lurus, sambungkan sembilan
titik yang ada dalam keadaan pensil atau pen
tidak diangkat.

MPF 1533 Muzz

2. Listening Skills
◦ Kemahiran mendengar juga penting dan
kerapkali kita lebih banyak bercakap
daripada mendengar
◦ Mendengar, memahami dan bertanya jika
perlu
◦ Meluangkan masa dan sudi mendengar apa
yang dinyatakan

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3. Giving and seeking feedback mestilah
berlaku secara mudah dan selesa
 Feedback boleh positif atau negatif
 Positive bila ianya mengukuhkan
tingkahlaku
 Negatif bila ia membetulkan sesuatu yang
melencong (deviation) atau salah (Harris,
1993)

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4. Bersikap terbuka (openness)
◦ Bersikap open-minded dan sedia
menerima maklumat yang disampaikan
◦ Terbuka juga bermaksud mengurangkan
komunikasi skema yang menghalang
komunikasi daripada berlaku
◦ Terbuka dan tidak terburu-buru membuat
kesimpulan dan penilaian terhadap
sesuatu yang diperkatakan
◦ Tidak berat sebelah dalam menimbang
maklumat yang disampaikan

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5. Rasa rendah diri (humble)
◦ Rasa rendah diri penting kerana tanpa
perasaan rendah diri orang yang
berkomunikasi tidak mampu untuk
menyelami dan memahami apa yang
diperkatakan.
◦ Perasaan ego akan menghalang proses
komunikasi

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6. Bersikap ingin tahu (curiousity)
◦ Benar-benar ingin mengetahui apa yang
diperkatakan
◦ Perasaan ingin tahu akan merangsang
sikap suka bertanya dan mendengar
◦ Ianya juga akan menyebabkan kita
melihat sesuatu isu daripada berbagai
perspektif (Why-why-why)

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7. Jujur dan ikhlas (sincerity
◦ Berterus terang dan jujur sekiranya kita
tidak menyetujui apa yang dikatakan
◦ Betul-betul bertujuan ikhlas untuk
berkongsi maklumat dan menambahbaik
perkara yang berlaku

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8. Menjaga rahsia (keep the secret)
sekiranya perlu
◦ Maklumat yang diperolehi hanya dikongsi
sekiranya perlu
◦ Menjaga rahsia dan tidak mengaibkan
pihak-pihak yang tertentu terutamanya
dalam maklumat yang bersifat sensitif

MPF 1533 Muzz

 Decision Making in Schools
(Membuat Keputusan di Sekolah)

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 “Most discussions of decision making assume
that only senior executives make decisions or
that only senior executives' decisions matter.
This is a dangerous mistake.”
Peter Drucker

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 Rationality
 Bounded Rationality
 Intuition

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 Keputusan perlu dibuat dalam semua aspek
pengurusan:
 Planning
◦ Organization strategy, goals etc
 Organizing
◦ Number of employees, job design, structure
 Leading
◦ Staff motivation, leadership style
 Controlling
◦ Performance, activities

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 Identify problem
 Identifying Decision Criteria
 Allocating weight to criteria
 Development of Alternatives
 Analysis of Alternatives
 Selecting an alternative
 Implementing the Alternative
 Evaluating Decision effective ness

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 Decision Making Errors
◦ Immediate gratification
 Keputusan segera
◦ History biased
 Pengalaman lampau
◦ Overconfidence
◦ Anchoring effects
 Tidak dapat maklumat seterusnya (mencukupi)
◦ Perception bias
 Melihat masalah berdasarkan persepsi
◦ Framing bias
 Overlooked sesetengah aspek

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 Directive
◦ Low tolerance for ambiguity, fast, short term
 Analytic
◦ High tolerance for ambiguity, more facts, more
alternatives
 Conceptual
◦ Long term, creative, philosophical
 Behavioral
◦ Consider others opinion, avoid conflict

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 Know when it’s time to call it quits
 Practice Why-Why Technique
 Be an effective decision maker
◦ Focus on what’s important
◦ It’s logical and consistent
◦ Based on necessary information
◦ Acknowledge objective and subjective thinking
◦ Encourage sharing and informed decision
◦ Reliable (achieving goals) and flexible

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MPF 1533 Muzz
 Sebuah bangunan di kediaman di Miami Florida kerap menerima
rungutan penghuni tentang lift-nya yang perlahan. Pihak
pengurusan mengambil keputusan untuk mengambil nasihat
sebuah syarikat perundingan terkemuka.
 Perunding mencadangkan supaya jentera lift ditukar dengan
yang baru. Rungutan penghuni menjadi reda buat seketika.
Walaubagaimanapun tidak lama selepas itu, rungutan yang sama
kembali kedengaran.
 Oleh kerana telah berbelanja besar, pengurusan mengambil
keputusan mengambil khidmat perunding tempatan yang murah.
Seorang kakitangan telah dihantar ke bangunan tersebut. Dari
segi penampilan ternyata beliau tidak kelihatan hebat seperti
jururunding sebelum ini.
 Setelah hampir setengah jam melihat keadaan lift yang ada,
beliau membuat keputusan meletakkan cermin di sekeliling
bahagian dalam dan luar lift tersebut. Penghuni bangunan
selepas itu kelihatan sibuk membetulkan topi dan pakaian mereka
di luar dan dalam lift. Tidak kedengaran lagi rungutan daripada
mereka selepas itu.
MPF 1533 Muzz
Leadership in Organization

MPF1533 Muzzammil 182

• Pendahuluan:
• Who are managers?
– Siapakah Pengurus?
• Who are the leaders
– Siapakah Pemimpin?
• Are teachers leaders in the school?
– Adakah guru seorang pengurus atau
pemimpin?

MPF1533 Muzzammil 183

 The action of measuring a quantity on a
regular basis and of adjusting some
initial and as the actions taken to reach
one's intended (organizational)goal.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 184

 5 general traits down sizes from 124 traits
studies of leadership by Stogdill (1948):
◦ Capacity
◦ Achievement
◦ Responsibility
◦ Participation
◦ Status

MPF1533 Muzzammil 185

 Foushee and Helmreich (1988)- study the
performance of airlines crews, focusing on
the captain’s personality.
 • Captains who were warm, friendly, self-
confident and able to deal with pressure had
crews with the best performance.
 • Captains who were arrogant, hostile,
boastful, egotistical, and passive aggressive
had the worst performing crews.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 186

 Leadership is a process in
which leaders attempt to
influence followers and vice
versa to accomplish a desired
goal (Pisapia, 2006)

MPF1533 Muzzammil 187

Persoalannya: Manakah konsep yang
lebih luas? Pengurusan atau
Kepimpinan?
Which is more broad? Leadership or
management?

MPF1533 Muzzammil 188

What is management?

MPF1533 Muzzammil 189

 Management" (from Old French ménagement
"the art of conducting, directing", from Latin
manu agere "to lead by the hand")
characterises the process of leading and
directing all or part of an organization, often
a business, through the deployment and
manipulation of resources (human, financial,
material, intellectual or intangible).
(http://wikipedia.org)

MPF1533 Muzzammil 190

 Syed Othman AL-Habshi (1989):

“pengurusan merupakan proses mendapat

dan mencantumkan sumber kewangan,
modal, tenaga manusia dan sebagainya untuk
mencapai matlamat organisasi samada
barangan atau perkhidmatan”

MPF1533 Muzzammil 191

 Blake and Mouton (1985) who are
famous with their managerial grid
theory, listed seven managerial roles:
◦ Planning
◦ Organizing
◦ Directing
◦ Controlling
◦ Staffing
◦ Management-by-objectives
◦ Performance appraisal.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 192

 Robbins and Coulter (2002):
 They simplified the essential processes
of management into four:
◦ Planning
◦ Organizing
◦ Leading
◦ Controlling

MPF1533 Muzzammil 193

 Planning:
◦ defining goals, establishing strategy, and
developing sub-plans to coordinate
activities
 Organizing
◦ determining what needs to be done, how it
will be done, and who will do it.
 Leading
◦ directing and motivating all involved parties
and resolving conflicts.
 Controlling
◦ monitoring activities to ensure that they
will be accomplished as planned.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 194

 Robbins and Coulter (2002) clearly
placed management as the bigger
concept while leadership was part or
branch of the management processes.
This is how leadership is normally
espoused by scholars in the
management schools.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 195

Leading

MPF1533 Muzzammil 196

 Robbins and Coulter (2002) clearly
placed management as the bigger
concept while leadership was part or
branch of the management processes.
This is how leadership is normally
espoused by scholars in the
management schools.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 197

 Contrary to this trend, Hersey and
Blanchard (1993) noted that “Leadership
is a broader concept than management”
(p.5).

MPF1533 Muzzammil 198

 Contrary to this trend, Hersey and
Blanchard (1993) noted that
“Leadership is a broader concept than
management” (p.5).

MPF1533 Muzzammil 199

Management

MPF1533 Muzzammil 200

 Bennis and Nanus (1985), Rost (1993),
Kotter (1996), Zaleznik (1977) and Kolb
et al. (2001) rejected that one was
more important and declared that
leadership and management are
different entities with distinct
constructs.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 201

 They maintained that leaders and
managers exhibited two distinct types
of behavior.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 202

Leadership Management

MPF1533 Muzzammil 203

 Other discussions on the differences
between the two concepts seemed to
be more moderate in approach.
 For example, Northouse (2001)
proposed that there is a considerable
amount of overlap between
management and leadership.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 204

Leadership Management

MPF1533 Muzzammil 205

 According to Northouse (2001), when
managers are trying to influence
members to meet their goals, they are
involved in leadership, but when
leaders are involved in planning,
organizing, staffing, and controlling,
they are actually involved in
management processes.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 206

 Another scholar, Topping (2002) argued
that senior executives also need to
manage, and managers, especially at
or below the general manager level
need to have the capability of being
both managers and leaders.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 207

 Using the proposed concept of
“managerial leadership,” he
maintained that without diminishing
the importance of good management,
the critical need today is to enhance
managers’ leadership behaviors

MPF1533 Muzzammil 208

 Topping (2002) argued that senior
executives also need to manage, and
managers, especially at or below the
general manager level need to have the
capability of being both managers and
leaders.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 209

Managerial leadership concept lies on
the word inspiration. Managerial
leaders are managers who can act
beyond the regular duties of a manager
and imbibe the "inspirational quality"
that could create a motivated self-
directed team that does not require his
or her constant attention.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 210

 John Kotter (1996): Managing Change

Organizations today are

“overmanaged and underled”

MPF1533 Muzzammil 211

Begitu juga senario yang ada di sekolah-
sekolah di Malaysia:

“Overmanaged but underled”

Nota: Kenyataan ini disokong sebahagiannya oleh kajian pengurusan

di di sekolah

MPF1533 Muzzammil 212

MPF1533 Muzzammil 213
 Managers are people who do things right,
while leaders are people who do the right
thing. - Warren Bennis, Ph.D.

MPF1533 Muzzammil 214

1. Set example (role 8. Motivate and inspire
model) 9. Align staffs efforts
2. Influencing 10. Bring staff together
3. Create Vision 11. Build networks
4. Bring change 12. Find Resources for
organization
5. Create leaders among
followers
6. Make tough decisions
7. Emotionally active
(decision making)

MPF1533 Muzzammil 215

 Program Implementation
1. Set example- be a role Annual award program
model 1. Principal will attend the program
meeting/preparation
2. Influencing 2. Principal will influence other
teachers to help the committee
3. Create Vision 3. Principal benchmark the program
4. Bring change with others
4. Parents involvement in tasks
5. Create leaders among 5. Principal allow you to make
decision regarding the event
followers Principal let you and your
6. Make tough decisions commitee set up the reviewing
commitee for awards’ recipients
7. Emotionally active 6. Principal asks for a program
(decision making) 7.
which is strictly academic
Ask for hardship/problem during
the preparation
1. Motivate and inspire  Dining with them before the
event. Meet the committe.
2. Align staffs efforts Members.
3. Bring staff together  Principal asks senior and junior
teachers to collaborate.
4. Build networks  Principal highlights the
5. Find Resources for importance of teamworking
and involvement
organization  Principal suggests you to invite
community leaders
 Principal gave RM4000 for the
committee to spend and
another RM2000 from PTA for
the committee’s dress

MPF1533 Muzzammil 217

Managing Change

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 Leaders ----Leading the change
Manager ----Managing the change

MPF1533 Muzzammil 219

 Leadership and management should be hand-
in-hand (togetherness)

Transformational (Change)

Managerial (stability)

MPF1533 Muzzammil 220

 Leading Change  Managing Change
1. Establish urgency 1. Do planning and
2. Create a coalition budgeting
3. Develop a vision & 2. Organizing and
strategy staffing
4. Communicate the 3. Coordinating
vision activities to get the
5. Empower broad- job accomplished
based action 4. Control and
problem solving
6. Generate short-term
wins
7. Consolidate gains &
produce more
8. Anchor new
approaches

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 Kotter details eight common errors in
organizational change efforts:
• Allow too much complacency
• Unable to build a team
• Underestimate the power of vision
• Under communicate the vision
• Permit obstacles to stand in the way
• Fail to create short-term wins
• Declare victory too soon
• Fail to anchor new approaches

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1. Allowing too much complacency
(kepuashatian)
◦ Complacent with what we have (sikap berpuas hati
dan tidak mahu berubah)
◦ Sikap berpuashati (kemahiran, gaji, suasana kerja,
pencapaian pelajar) membuatkan pemimpin lebih
memilih untuk tinggal dalam “comfort zone”
mereka.
◦ Ianya merupakan halangan utama untuk
perubahan berlaku

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 Personal complacency occurs when you stop
caring and stop feeling the outside pressures
of life. Basically when you stop caring about
the things going on around you, and the stop
caring about the outside pressures effecting
your life, you become comfortable with your
current situation and change can be a hard
thing to do.

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 2. Unable to build team
◦ Kegagalan membina kumpulan yang
bertanggungjawab membawa perubahan (failure
build a team in charge)
◦ Perubahan tidak mungkin dilakukan seorang diri
(individual can’t bring change alone)
◦ Kumpulan yang pakar dalam bidang masing-masing
(should be experts in the team)
◦ Kumpulan tersebut mestilah diberikan kepercayaan
untuk melakukan perubahan (trusted and
empowered to make change)

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 3. Underestimate the power of vision
◦ Memandah rendah kekuatan visi
◦ Visi merupakan satu sasaran yang
ditetapkan oleh sesuatu organisasi (e.g.
UTM vision)
◦ Visi mampu membawa perubahan dalam
organisasi (vision can bring change)
◦ Visi perlu difahami oleh semua ahli dalam
organisasi (should be understood by all
members)

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 4. Undercommunicate the vision
◦ Tidak berkomunikasi dan menyebarkan visi
kepada semua (not communicating the
vision)
◦ Menganggap ahli tahu visi, misi dan
matlamat organisasi (assume members
know everything)
◦ Setelah visi, misi dan objektif di bina,
pengurusan perlu selaraskan semua aktiviti
dengannya dan mewar-warkannya (align all
activities and promulgate it)

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 5. Permit obstacles to stand in the way
◦ Membenarkan halangan berada di
pertengahan usaha perubahan yang hendak
dilakukan (allow obstacles exist)
◦ Halangan melambatkan proses peubahan
◦ Mesti dikenalpasti dan diatasi (should
identify the barriers; not confidence,
anxiety, inferiority complex)

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6. Fail to create short-term wins (Gagal
mencipta kemenangan jangka-pendek)
-Short term win penting untuk
mengembalikan tenaga dan mengekalkan
keyakinan terhadap diri (rejuvenate the
energy)
Motivate individuals
-Terlampau ambitious menyebabkan short
term win sukar dicipta (too ambitious
makes it hard to create short term wins)

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7. Declare victory too soon
(Terlalu awal mengisytiharkan kemenangan)
pengurus mestilah dapat membezakan antara
battle (pertempuran) dan war (peperangan) yang
dihadapi (need to differentiate between war and
battle)
Keseronokan dengan apa dicapai pada sesuatu
peringkat seharusnya tidak menghentikan usaha
yang dibuat (Jubilation should not stop the
ongoing struggle)

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 8. Fail to anchor new approaches (Gagal
untuk mencuba pendekatan-pendekatan baru
yang ada )
◦ Pendekatan yang baru boleh merangsang sesuatu
perubahan itu untuk berlaku (approaches which can
stimulate the change)
◦ Stick to the own paradigm (status quo) can deter
change from happening (status quo boleh
menghalang perubahan)

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1. Allow too much 1. Establish urgency
complacency 2. Create a coalition
2. Unable to build a team 3. Develop a vision &
3. Underestimate the power
of vision strategy
4. Under communicate the 4. Communicate the vision
vision 5. Empower broad-based
5. Permit obstacles to stand action
in the way 6. Generate short-term wins
6. Fail to create short-term 7. Consolidate gains &
wins produce more
7. Declare victory too soon 8. Anchor new approaches
8. Fail to anchor new
approaches

*Adapted from Leading Change by John P. Kotter

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1. Apakah aspek yang difokuskan?
2. Bagaimana anda boleh meyakinkan “urgency: tersebut
3. Siapakah yang akan menganggotai team?
4. Bagaimana anda akan merancang visi, misi, objektif dll?
5. Bagaimana visi misi boleh dikomunikasi secara berterusan?
6. Berapa dan apa “serampang” (broad-based action/strategy)
yang akan digunakan?
7. Apakah mile-marker terlibat dan wins serta celebration
yang akan dibuat?
8. Bagaimana kemenangan/pencapaian dianalisis dan dilihat
semula bagi tujan penambahbaikan perancangan (dan
pelaksanaan) akan datang/berterusan
9. Bagaimanakah ianya akan diinstitusikan?

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 Rasa kepentingan untuk segera berubah
 What is our current reality?SWOT?
 Bandingkan organisasi kita dengan yang lain.
 Why is it important? Kenapa perubahan itu
perlu dilakukan.

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 Membina kumpulan yang fokus kepada visi
 Kumpulan tersebut akan “work like a team”
 Kumpulan yang diamanahkan untuk
menganalisa dan merangka perubahan
 Pakar dan istimewa dalam bidang masing-
masing

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 Mencipta visi dan strategi untuk
mencapainya.
 Vision directs the effort (visi akan
memberikan hala tuju)
 Strategies are how you’ll get there (strategi
ialah panduan bagaimana ianya akan dicapai)
 Vision and strategies should guide decision-
making, and prioritize the actions to be
taken.

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 Berkomunikasi dan menyebarkan visi yang
ada
 Communicate constantly
 Your team must model the behavior

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 Get rid of obstacles to change (manusia,
struktur, proses)
 Change systems or structures that seriously
undermine the vision
 Encourage risk-taking and nontraditional ideas,
activities, and actions

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 Mencipta kemenangan yang bersifat jangka
pendek
 Plan for visible improvements in performance,
or “wins” (merancang kemenangan yang
boleh diukur)
 Create those wins and visibly recognize &
reward people who made wins possible

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 Mencantumkan kemenangan dan membawa
lebih banyak perubahan
 Use small wins to go farther (Menggunakan
kemenangan yang ada untuk pergi lebih
jauh)

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 Melaksanakan pendekatan-pendekatan
baru
 Reinforce steps taken (menguatkuasakan
langkah yang diambil)
 Articulate connections between new
behaviors and chapter success
(menghubungkan tingkahlaku baru
dengan kejayaan)

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 Leading Change  Managing Change
1. Establish urgency 1. Do planning and
2. Create a coalition budgeting
3. Develop a vision & 2. Organizing and
strategy staffing
4. Communicate the 3. Coordinating
vision activities to get the
5. Empower broad- job accomplished
based action 4. Control and
problem solving
6. Generate short-term
wins
7. Consolidate gains &
produce more
8. Anchor new
approaches
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 Dalam menguruskan perubahan di sekolah,
kepemimpinan dan kepengurusan mestilah
seiring dan sejalan bagi memastikan
penambahbaikan berterusan berlaku.
Transformational (Change)

Managerial (stability)

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 First five steps before change:
1. An organization’s previous experience in accepting
change
1. Kumpul maklumat ttg perubahan lepas
2. Lebihkan masa untuk bincang perubahan yang hendak
dibawa
3. Menyediakan ruangan maklumbalas secara berterusan
4. Aturkan hasil segera dpd perubahan yang dibawa
5. Warwarkan kejayaan
2. The clarity of expectations
3. The origin of the idea or problem
4. The support of top management
5. The compatibility of the change with
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MPF 1533 Muzz
 Bincangkan pembacaan anda tentang buku
One Minute Manager. Cadangkan dua
penambahbaikan dalam amalan (practice)
yang boleh dilakukan di dalam institusi anda
berdasarkan pembacaan tersebut.

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 This is a story about four people named
Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and
Nobody. There was an important job to be
done and Everybody was sure that
Somebody would do it. Anybody could have
done it but Nobody did it. Somebody got
angry about that because it was Everybody’s
job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it
but Nobody realized that Everybody
wouldn’t do it. It ended up that Everybody
blamed Somebody when Nobody did what
Anybody could have done!
-Think Inc/ Promod Batra

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School Effectiveness and Quality

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 Keberkesanan: Effectiveness
 Keberkesanan lebih melihat kepada
pencapaian kepada matlamat yang
disasarkan.
 Ini bermakna bahawa pengurusan yang
berkesan ialah pengurusan yang berjaya
mencapai matalamat pengurusan yang
disasarkan (Begitu juga dengan kepimpinan
yang berkesan----matlamat kepimpinan)

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 Effectiveness: Doing the right things
means effectiveness - setting the right
goals and objectives and then making
sure they're accomplished.
 Efficiency: Doing things right means
efficiency - getting the most from your
resources, whether they're people or
products.

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 Saya percaya, kita mempunyai sejumlah sekolah yang
baik dan cemerlang untuk dijadikan show case kepada
negara-negara lain di dunia. Untuk itu kita akan
merangkaikan semua sekolah yang cemerlang ini
dengan sekolah-sekolah terkenal di luar negara agar
sekolah-sekolah yang cemerlang ini dapat dijadikan
show-case kepada masyarakat antarabangsa. Bagi
sekolah-sekolah di luarKementerian Pelajaran seperti
sekolah-sekolah swasta dan antarabangsa, kita akan
berusaha mengenal pasti sekolah-sekolah yang
berpotensi dan merangka pelan pemasaran yang
bersesuaian untuk memasarkan sekolah-sekolah ini ke
negara-negara lain
 Y.B. DATO’ SRI HISHAMMUDDIN TUN HUSSEIN, 3 April, 2006,
Putrajaya.

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 Apa yang dimaksudkan dengan Kualiti?

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 Barang yang berkualiti di negara ini
tidak semestinya dianggap berkualiti
di tempat lain?
 Kualiti service di mata seseorang tak
sama dengan yang lain
 Kualiti tidak selalunya dilihat dari segi
kecantikan
 Konsep “Lambat” berbeza mengikut
negara.
◦ Melayu: lambat jika lebih dari sejam?
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 “When pressed to define pornography,
a Supreme Court Justice once
commented that he could’nt define it
but knew it when he saw it. Quality is
like that. Although few consumers
could define quality if asked, all know
it when they see it. This makes the
critical point that quality is in the eye
of the beholder” (Goetsch and David,
2000)
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 Consumer Driven Concept of quality:
Konsep kualiti yang bersandarkan
kepada pengguna
◦ Eg. Apabila makan di restoran, akan menilai
kualiti sesebuah resoran melalui perkara-
perkara berikut:
◦ Perkhidmatan/layanan
◦ Response time
◦ Harga
◦ Plihan yang banyak
◦ Environment/atmosphere (suasana)
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 Boeing: “Providing our customers with
products and services that
consistently meet their needs and
expectations”
◦ Membekalkan pelanggan dengan barangan
dan perkhidmatan yang sentiasa memenuhi
keperluan dan jangkaan mereka.
 GSA, USA: “Meeting the customer’s
needs the first time and every time”.
◦ Menepati keperluan pelanggan kali pertama
dan selamanya.
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 Deming :
“…quality has many different criteria
and that these criteria change
continually”

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Jika kualiti ada kriteria yang berbeza,
bagaimana kualiti pengurusan sekolah
dapat ditentukan?

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 Kualiti Sekolah? Sila nyatakan kualiti
yang seharusnya ada di sekolah?

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 Standard Kualiti Pendidikan Malaysia (SKPM)
◦ SKPM1
 Standard Kualiti Pendidikan Malaysia: Pernyataan
Standard (PS)
◦ SKPM2
 Standard Kualiti Pendidikan Malaysia: Instrumen
Pemastian Standard (IPS)
◦ SKPM3
 Standard Kualiti Pendidikan Malaysia: Rancangan
Pemajuan Sekolah (RPS)

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 IPS akan digunakan oleh Nazir Sekolah
semasa menjalankan pemeriksaan di sekolah.
Pihak sekolah pula hendaklah menggunakan
instrumen ini untuk melakukan penarafan
kendiri. Agensi di bawah KPM, JPN, PPD, PPB
juga boleh menggunakan instrumen ini ketika
melaksanakan pemantauan dan penyeliaan di
sekolah

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 Dimensi I: Hala tuju kepimpinan (10%
wajaran)
 Dimensi II: Pengurusan Organisasi (30%
wajaran)
 Dimensi III: Pengurusan Program Pendidikan
(45% wajaran)
 Dimensi IV: Kemenjadian Murid (15% wajaran)

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 Hala tuju kepimpinan (10% wajaran)
◦ Elemen 1: Visi dan misi
◦ Elemen 2: Kepemimpinan
 Pengurusan Organisasi (30% wajaran)
◦ Elemen 3: Struktur Organisasi
◦ Elemen 4: Perancangan
◦ Elemen 5: Iklim
◦ Elemen 6: Pengurusan dan pembangunan sumber
◦ Elemen 7: Pengurusan maklumat

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 Pengurusan Program Pendidikan (45%
wajaran)
◦ Elemen 8: Pengurusan program kurikulum,
kokurikulum dan hal ehwal murid
◦ Elemen 9: Pengajaran dan pembelajaran
◦ Elemen 10: Pembangunan sahsiah murid
◦ Elemen 11: Penilaian pencapaian murid
 Kemenjadian Murid (15% wajaran)
◦ Elemen 12: Kemenjadian murid dalam akademik,
kokurikulum dan sahsiah

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 Key elements of Quality (Goestch and
Davis, 2000)
◦ Strategically based
◦ Customer focus
◦ Obsession with quality
◦ Scientific Approach
◦ Long term Commitment
◦ Employee Improvement and Empowerment

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1. Build aware ness of both the need for improvement
and opportunities for improvement
2. Set goals for improvement
3. Organize to meet the goals that have been set
4. Provide Training
5. Implement projects aimed at solving problems
6. Report progress
7. Give recognition
8. Communicate Results
9. Keep score
10. Maintain momentum by building improvement into
the company’s regular systems

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 Disclaimer:

 This course packet is provided to guide

students’ reading. Students are responsible
to go through literatures to know more on
the theories discussed.

Good Luck

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