Unit– 3– 4

Unit
Pushdown
Context Free Grammar
(CFG)
Automata
Prof. Dixita Kagathara
dixita.kagathara@darshan.ac.in

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 Context Free Grammar

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 Context Free Grammar
 A context free grammar (CFG) is a 4-tuple where,
is finite set of non terminals,
is disjoint finite set of terminals,
is an element of and it’s a start symbol,
is a finite set formulas of the form where and .
 Application of CFG:
1. CFG are extensively used to specify the syntax of
programming language.
2. CFG is used to develop a parser.

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 Context Free Language
 Let be a CFG. The language generated by is

 A language is a context free Language (CFL) if there is a CFG so

that .

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG for either a or b
Sa | b
• Write CFG for a+
S aS | a
• Write CFG for a*
S aS | ^
• Write CFG for (ab)*
SabS | ^
• Write CFG for any string of a and b
S aS | bS | a | b

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG for ab*
SaX
X˄| bX
• Write CFG for regular expression a*b*
SXY
XaX|˄
YbY|˄
• Write CFG for regular expression (a+b)*
SaS | bS | ^
• Write CFG for regular expression a(a+b)*
SaX
XaX | bX | ^

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG for a* | b*
SA | B
A˄| aA
B^ |bB
• Write CFG for regular expression (011+1)*(01)*
SAB
A011A | 1A | ^
B01B | ^
• Write CFG for balanced parenthesis
S [] | {} | [s] | {s} | ^

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG which contains at least three times 1.
SA1A1A1A
A0A | 1A | ^
• Write CFG that must start and end with same symbol.
S0A0 | 1A1
A0A | 1A | ^
• The language of even & odd length palindrome string over {a,b}
SaSa|bSb|a|b|˄
• No. of a and no. of b are same
SaSb|bSa|˄
• The language of {a, b} ends in a
SaS | bS |a

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG for regular expression (a+b)*a(a+b)*a(a+b)*
SXaXaX
XaX|bX|˄
• Write CFG for number of 0’s and 1’s are same (n0(x)=n1(x))
S0S1 | 1S0 | ^
• Write CFG for L={aibjck | i=j or j=k}
For i=j for j=k
SAB SCD
AaAb | ab CaC | a
BcB | c DbDc | bc

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG for L={ aibjck | j>i+k}
SABC
AaAb |˄
BbB | b
CbCc |˄
• Write CFG for L={ 0i1j0k | j>i+k}
SABC
A0A1 |˄
B1B | 1
C1C0 |˄
• Write CFG for the language of Algebraic expressions
SS+S | S*S | S-S | S/S | (S) | a

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 CFG Examples
• Write CFG for syntax of programming language
<statement> … | <if-statement> | <for-statement> | …

<if-statement> if ( <expression> ) <statement>

<for-statement> for ( <expression>; <expression>; <expression> ) <statement>

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 Recursive Definition
1. Recursive Definition of {a,b}*
˄∈L
For any S∈L, Sa∈L
For any S∈L, Sb∈L
No other strings are in L.
2. Recursive Definition of Palindrome (pal)
˄, a, b ∈ pal
For any S ∈ pal , aSa ∈ pal and bSb ∈ pal
No other string are in pal
3. Recursive Definition of the language {anbn / n≥0}
˄∈L
For every X ∈ L, aXb ∈L
No other strings are in L
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 Regular Grammar

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 Regular Grammar
 A grammar is regular if every production takes one of the two
forms,

where and are Nonterminal and is terminal.

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 FA to Regular Grammar
0 1

1
0

At last, all the incoming

transitions to the accepting states
are designated by the production
Source State → input symbol
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 Exercise: FA to Regular Grammar
b

a B a
b
b
A C

b b
a a

a
E D

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 Derivation trees & Ambiguity

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 Derivation
 Derivation is used to find whether the string belongs to a given
grammar or not.
 Types of derivations are:
1. Leftmost derivation
2. Rightmost derivation

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 Leftmost Derivation
• A derivation of a string W in a grammar G is a left most derivation
if at every step the left most non terminal is replaced.
• Let us consider a Grammar
SS+S | S-S | S*S | S/S | (S) | a
• String: a*a-a
S
S
S-S S - S
S*S-S
a*S-S S * S a
a*a-S
a*a-a a a
Leftmost Derivation Tree
Leftmost Derivation
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 Rightmost Derivation
• A derivation of a string W in a grammar G is a right most
derivation if at every step the right most non terminal is replaced.
• Let us consider a Grammar
SS+S | S-S | S*S | S/S | (S) | a
• String: a*a-a
S
S
S*S S * S
S*S-S
S*S-a a S - S
S*a-a
a*a-a a a
Rightmost Derivation Tree
Rightmost Derivation
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 Example: Derivation
SA1B
A0A | �
B0B | 1B | � Perform leftmost & Rightmost derivation.
(String: 00101)
Leftmost Derivation Rightmost Derivation
S S
A1B A1B
A10B
0A1B
A101B
00A1B A101
001B 0A101
0010B 00A101
00101B 00101
00101
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 Exercise
1. SA1B
A0A | �
B0B | 1B | � (String: 1001) Perform leftmost derivation.
2. EE+E | E*E | id | (E) | -E
String : id + id * id. Perform rightmost derivation

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 Ambiguous Grammar
 A context free grammar G is ambiguous if there is at least one
string in L(G) having two or more distinct derivation tree.
 Ex: SS+S | S-S | S*S | S/S | (S) | a
 String: a+a*a
S S
S*S S+S
S+S*S a+S
a+S*S a+S*S
a+a*S a+a*S
a+a*a a+a*a
Here, we have two left most derivation for string a+a*a hence, above
grammar is ambiguous.

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 Exercise
Check whether following grammars are ambiguous or not:
1. S aS | Sa | � (string: aaaa)
2. S aSbS | bSaS | � (string: abab)
3. SSS+ | SS* | a (string: aa+a*)

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 Unambiguous Grammar
S S+S | S*S | (S) | a

S S+T | T Equivalent
T T*F | F Unambiguous
String: a+a*a
F (S) | a grammar
S
S+T
T+T
F+T
a+T
Here, we do not have two left most derivation for
a+T*F
string a+a*a hence, grammar is Unambiguous.
a+F*F
a+a*F
a+a*a

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 Simplified forms & Normal forms

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 Nullable Variable
 A Nullable variable in a CFG, is defined as follows:
1. Any variable A for which P contains is nullable.
2. If P contains the production are nullable variable, then A is
nullable.
3. No other variables in V are nullable.

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 Elimination of ^ productions
 Given a CFG , construct a CFG with no ^- production as follows.
1. Initialize P1 to be P.
2. Find all nullable variable in V.
3. For every production in P, add to P1 every production that can be
obtained from this one by deleting from one or more of the
occurrences of nullable variables in .
4. Delete all the empty productions from P1. also delete any
duplicates, as well as production of the form

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 Eliminate ˄ production
Sa X |Yb
X ˄ | S Nullable variable={X}
YbY|b

Replacing X by ^ in all
SaX | Yb | a^
productions containing X
X^ | S on RHS and rewriting
YbY|b the production again

SaX|Yb|a Removing ^ productions

XS and production of the
YbY|b form AA

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 Example: Eliminate ^ production
SAC
AaAb|˄
CaC|a
Grammar after elimination of ^ production:
SAC | C
AaAb| ab
CaC|a
SXaX|bX|Y
XXaX|XbX|˄
Yab
Grammar after elimination of ^ production:
S XaX | bX | Y | aX | Xa | a | b
X XaX |XbX | aX | Xa | a | Xb | bX | b
Yab

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 A-derivable
 A variable is called A-derivable ,
1. If is a production, B is A-derivable.
2. If C is A-derivable, is a production, and , then B is A-derivable.
3. No other variables are A-derivable.

SA SA
SB AB
S-derivable={A,B} S-derivable={A,B}

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 Unit Production & Elimination of Unit productions
 A production of the form AB is termed as unit production.
Where A & B are nonterminals.
Algorithm
 Given a CFG with no ^ productions, construct a CFG having no
unit production as follows.
1. Initialize P1 to be P.
2. For each A ∈ V ,finding the set of A derivable variable.
3. For every pair (A, B) such that B is A- derivable and every non unit
production Bα, add the production Aα to P1 if it is not
already present in P1.
4. Delete all unit productions from P1.

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 Elimination of unit production
SABA|BA|AA|AB|A|B
Unit Productions
A aA|a
B bB|b are SA and SB

SABA|BA|AA|AB |aA|a|bB|b Removing unit

AaA|a
BbB|b productions

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 Chomsky Normal Form

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 Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)
 A context free grammar is in Chomsky normal form (CNF) if every
production is one of these two forms:
A  BC
Aa
Where A, B, and C are nonterminals and a is terminal.

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 Converting CFG to CNF
 Steps to convert CFG to CNF
1. Eliminate ˄-Productions
2. Eliminate Unit Productions
3. Restricting the right side of productions to single terminal or
string of two or more nonterminals
4. Final step of CNF (shorten the string of NT to length 2)

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 Example (CFG to CNF)
SAAC
AaAb|˄
CaC|a
Step 1: Elimination of ^ production

Eliminate A^
SAAC| AC | C
AaAb| ab
CaC|a

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 CFG to CNF
Step-2: Eliminate Unit Production
Unit Production is SC
SAAC|AC| aC|a
C
AaAb|ab
CaC|a

Step-3: Replace all mixed string with solid NT

aC|a
SAAC|AC| PC
A PAQ|PQ
aAb|ab
C PC|a
aC|a
Pa
Qb

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 CFG to CNF
Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
SAX1
X1AC SAAC|AC|PC|a
SAC|PC|a APAQ|PQ
CPC|a
APY1
Pa
Y1AQ Qb
APQ
CPC|a
Pa
Qb

Chomsky Normal Form

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 Example: CFG to CNF
SaAbB
AAb|b
BBa|a
Step 1 is not required as there is no ^ productions
Step 2 is not required as there is no unit productions
Step-3: Replace all mixed string with solid NT:
SPAQB Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
AAQ|b SPT1 T1AT2 T2QB
BBP|a AQB|b
Pa BBP|a
Qb Pa
Qb

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 Example: CFG to CNF
SbA|aB
AbAA|aS|a
BaBB|bS|b
Step 1 & 2 are not required as there is no ^ and Unit productions
Step-3:Replace all mixed string with solid NT:
SQA|PB
AQAA|PS|a
BPBB|QS|b
Pa
Qb
Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
SQA|PB
AQT1|PS|a T1AA
BPV1|QS|b V1BB
PaQb

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 Example: CFG to CNF
SAA
AB|BB
BabB|b|bb
Step 1 is not required as there is no ^ productions
Step-2: Eliminate Unit Production:
SAA Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
SAA
A abB|b|bb|BB A PT1|b|QQ|BB T1QB
BabB|b|bb B PV1|b|QQ V1QB
Step-3:Replace all mixed string with solid NT: Pa
SAA Qb
A PQB|b|QQ|BB
B PQB|b|QQ
Pa
Qb

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 End of Unit - 3

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