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ELECTRIC FORCES AND

ELECTRIC FIELDS
Third Quarter
Chapter 1
OBJECTIVES
• Describe using a diagram charging by rubbing
and charging by induction
• Explain the role of electron transfer in
electrostatic charging by rubbing
• Describe experiments to show electrostatic
charging by induction
This nighttime view of multiple bolts
of lightning was photographed in
Tucson, Arizona. During a
thunderstorm, a high concentration of
electrical charge in a thundercloud
creates a higher-than-normal electric
field between the thundercloud and
the negatively charged Earth’s
surface.
This strong electric field creates an
electric discharge—an enormous
spark—between the charged cloud
and the ground. Other discharges
observed in the sky include cloud-to-
cloud discharges and the more
frequent intracloud discharges.
ELECTRICITY
is the lifeblood of technological
civilization and modern society.
ELECTRICITY is the lifeblood of technological
civilization and modern society.
Around 700 the ancient Greeks conducted the earliest
B.C.

known study of electricity. It all began when someone noticed


that a fossil material called amber would attract small objects
after being rubbed with wool. Since then we have learned that
this phenomenon is not restricted to amber and wool, but
occurs (to some degree) when almost any two non-
conducting substances are rubbed together.
1.1
PROPERTIES OF
ELECTRIC CHARGE
After running the comb in your hair
you observed tiny bits of paper in a
desk.
What will happen if you placed the
comb near the bits of paper?
The attractive force is often strong enough to
suspend the paper from the comb, defying the
gravitational pull of the entire Earth.

The same effect occurs with other rubbed


materials, such as glass and hard rubber.

materials have become electrically charged


Experiments also demonstrate that there are two kinds of electric
charge, which Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) named
POSITIVE and NEGATIVE.
Experiments also demonstrate that there are two kinds of electric
charge, which Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) named
POSITIVE and NEGATIVE.

It was assumed that the rubber and glass rods have


acquired different kinds of excess charge.
We use the convention suggested by Franklin, where the
excess electric charge on the glass rod is called positive
and that on the rubber rod is called negative.
1.1 PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC
CHARGES
1. LIKE charges repel; UNLIKE charges
attract.
Objects usually contain equal amounts of positive
and negative charge; electrical forces between
objects arise when those objects have net negative
or positive charges.
• Nature’s basic carriers of positive charge
are protons, which, along with neutrons,
are located in the nuclei of atoms.
• The nucleus, about 1015 m in radius, is
surrounded by a cloud of negatively
charged electrons about ten thousand
times larger in extent.
• An electron has the same magnitude
charge as a proton, but the opposite
sign.
• In a gram of matter there are approximately 1023
positively charged protons and just as many negatively
charged electrons, so the net charge is ZERO.
• Because the nucleus of an atom is held firmly in place
inside a solid, protons never move from one material to
another.
• Electrons are far lighter than protons and hence more
easily accelerated by forces. Further, they occupy the
outer regions of the atom.
Consequently, objects become charged by
gaining or losing electrons.
Charge transfers readily from one type of
material to another.

Rubbing the two materials together serves


to increase the area of contact, facilitating
the transfer process.
1.1 PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC
CHARGES
2. Charge is always CONSERVED.

Charge isn’t created when two neutral objects


are rubbed together; rather, the objects
become charged because negative charge is
transferred from one object to the other.
2. Charge is always
CONSERVED.
• In 1909 Robert Millikan (1886–1953) discovered
that if an object is charged, its charge is always a
multiple of a fundamental unit of charge,
designated by the symbol 𝒆.
• In modern terms, the charge is said to be
quantized, meaning that charge occurs in discrete
chunks that can’t be further subdivided.
• An object may have a charge of ±𝑒, ± 2𝑒, ± 3𝑒,
and so on, but never a fractional charge of ± 0.5𝑒
or ± 0.22𝑒.
• Other experiments in Millikan’s time showed that
the electron has a charge of ± 𝑒 and the proton
has an equal and opposite charge of ± 𝑒. Some
particles, such as a neutron, have no net charge. A
neutral atom (an atom with no net charge)
contains as many protons as electrons.
• The value of 𝑒 is now known to be
−19
1.602 19 × 10 C.
(The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb, or C.)
1.2
INSULATORS AND
CONDUCTORS
Substances can be classified in
terms of their ability to conduct
electric charge.

• In conductors, electric charges move freely in


response to an electric force.
• All other materials are called insulators.
Glass and rubber are insulators.
When such materials are charged by
rubbing, only the rubbed area becomes
charged, and there is no tendency for the
charge to move into other regions of the
material.
Copper, aluminum, and silver are
good conductors.
When such materials are charged in some
small region, the charge readily distributes
itself over the entire surface of the material.
Semiconductors are a third class of
materials, and their electrical properties are
somewhere between those of insulators
and those of conductors.
Silicon and germanium are well-known
semiconductors that are widely used in the
fabrication of a variety of electronic devices.
CHARGING BY CONDUCTION
Consider a
negatively
charged rubber
rod brought into
contact with an
insulated neutral
conducting
sphere.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
An object connected to a conducting wire or copper
pipe buried in the Earth is said to be grounded.

The Earth can be considered an infinite reservoir


for electrons; in effect, it can accept or supply an
unlimited number of electrons.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
• Consider a negatively
charged rubber rod
brought near a neutral
(uncharged) conducting
sphere that is insulated,
so there is no
conducting path to
ground. Initially the sphere is
electrically neutral
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
When the negatively charged rod
is brought close to the sphere,
the repulsive force between the
electrons in the rod and those in
the sphere causes some
electrons to move to the side of
the sphere farthest away from the
rod.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
The region of the sphere nearest
the negatively charged rod has an
excess of positive charge
because of the migration of
electrons away from that location.
If a grounded conducting wire is
then connected to the sphere,
some of the electrons leave the
sphere and travel to ground.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION

If the wire to ground is


then removed, the
conducting sphere is left
with an excess of induced
positive charge.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Finally, when the rubber rod is removed from the vicinity of the
sphere, the induced positive charge remains on the
ungrounded sphere.
Even though the positively charged atomic nuclei remain fixed,
this excess positive charge becomes uniformly distributed over
the surface of the ungrounded sphere because of the repulsive
forces among the like charges and the high mobility of electrons
in a metal.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
In the process of inducing a charge on the sphere,
the charged rubber rod doesn’t lose any of its
negative charge because it never comes in contact
with the sphere. Furthermore, the sphere is left
with a charge opposite that of the rubber rod.
Charging an object by induction requires no
contact with the object inducing the charge.
• In most neutral atoms or molecules, the center of positive charge
coincides with the center of negative charge. In the presence of a
charged object, however, these centers may separate slightly,
resulting in more positive charge on one side of the molecule
than on the other.
• This effect is known as POLARIZATION.
• The realignment of charge within individual molecules produces
an induced charge on the surface of the insulator,
• This property explains why a balloon charged through rubbing will
stick to an electrically neutral wall or why the comb you just used
on your hair attracts tiny bits of neutral
paper.
QUICK QUIZ 15.1
A suspended object A is attracted to a neutral wall.
It’s also attracted to a positively charged object B.
Which of the following is true about object A?
(a) It is uncharged.
(b) It has a negative charge.
(c) It has a positive charge.
(d) It may be either charged or uncharged.
QUICK QUIZ 15.1

A person is placed in a large, hollow metallic sphere


that is insulated from ground. If a large charge is
placed on the sphere, will the person be harmed
upon touching the inside of the sphere?
(a) Yes
(b) No
QUICK QUIZ 15.1

A charged comb often attracts small bits of dry paper


that then fly away when they touch the comb. Why?
(a) Charges on the comb are transferred.
(b) It has an opposite charge that of the comb.
(c) It has a positive charge.
(d) It may be either charged or uncharged.

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