GUIDED BY: PRESENTED BY:

PROF. DR. HEMANT KUMAR HALWAI DR. ROCKEY SHRIVASTAVA

ASSOC. PROF. DR. SUMIT KUMAR YADAV 1ST YEAR JR
ASST. PROF. DR. KISHOR DUTTA DEPARTMENT OF ORTHODONTICS AND
ASST. PROF. DR. SANDEEP KUMAR GUPTA DENTOFACIAL ORTHOPAEDICS
“When iron and carbon come together, there emerges
steel! To be something stronger and better, you must
mostly unite with something else and melt in something
else!”
― Mehmet Murat ildan
 Introduction
 History
 Composition
 Austenitic steel
 Ferritic steel
 Martensitic steel
 Corrosion resistance and sensitization
 Soldering and welding
 Mechanical properties
 Recent advancements
 Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon
content is less than 2%
 When approximately 12% to 30% chromium is added
to iron, the alloy is commonly called stainless steel
 Three major types of stainless steel, classified on the
basis of crystal structures formed by the iron atoms:
Ferritic, Austenitic and Martensitic steels
Kusy RP. Orthodontic biomaterials: from the past to the present. The Angle
Orthodontist. 2002 Dec;72(6):501-12.
 In 1912, Harry Brearly of the Brown-Firth research
laboratory in Sheffield discovered and subsequently
industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy
 Stainless steel entered dentistry in 1919, introduced at
Krupp’s dental polyclinic in Germany by F. Haupt Meyer
 In 1930 Angle used it to make ligature wires.
 By 1937 the value of stainless steel as an orthodontic wire
had been confirmed
 Stainless steel today is used to make arch wires, ligature
wires, band material, brackets and buccal tubes
Types of stainless steel Chromium Nickel Carbon
(crystal structure
formed by iron atoms)

Ferritic (BCC) 11.5 – 27.0 0 0.20 max

Austenitic (FCC) 16.0 – 26.0 7.0 – 22.0 0.25 max
Martensitic (BCT) 11.5 – 17.0 0 – 2.5 0.15 – 1.20

*Silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, manganese, tantalum, and niobium may also be present
in small amounts. The balance is iron.
 CHROMIUM
Improves corrosion resistance by the passivating effect in
which the chromium exposed at the surface of the alloy
is readily oxidized to form a tenacious surface film of
chromic oxide.

 NICKEL
Contributes towards corrosion resistance and helps to
strengthen the alloy.
 MANGANESE
Acts as scavenger and increases hardness

 SILICON
Acts as deoxidizer and scavenger

 TITANIUM
Inhibits the precipitation of chromium carbide

 NIOBIUM
Niobium helps prevent the formation of chrome carbides, that can
rob the microstructure of the required amount of chromium for
passivation
 SULFUR
It is used to improve machinability

 PHOSPHORUS
Prevents the sticking of light-gage sheets
Strengthens low carbon steel
Increases resistance to corrosion
Improves machinability in free-cutting steels

 TANTALUM
Tantalum’s low mechanical strength and high biocompatibility
allow it to coat stronger substrates, like stainless steel, for medical
applications.
 The austenite allotrope is named after Sir William
Chandler Robert - Austen
 AISI series 302, 304, 316L
 Most corrosion resistant alloys
 Used for orthodontic wires, endodontic instruments and
crowns in pediatrics dentistry
 Type 302 SS: 17% - 19% chromium, 8% - 10% nickel, and a
maximum carbon content of 0.15% carbon
 Type 304 SS: 18% - 20% chromium, 8% - 12% nickel, and a
maximum carbon content of 0.08%

Both 302 and 304 stainless steel are often designated as 18-8
stainless steel
 Type 316L (low carbon) contains 10% - 14% nickel, 2% -
3% molybdenum, 16% - 18% chromium, and 0.03%
maximum carbon
 stainless steel ordinarily employed for implants
 Above 723 ̊C an interstitial solid solution of carbon in a
face-centered cubic iron matrix is formed. This solid
solution, termed austenite, is unstable below 723ºC
(the critical temperature)
 https://johncarlosbaez.wordpress.com

The face centered cubic structure has atoms located at each of the corners
and the centers of all the cubic faces
 It is not possible to harden these stainless steels by
heat treatment because the solid–solid transitions
occur below the temperature at which atomic
diffusions are possible.
 Used for noncutting instruments, wires and
occasionally as denture bases.
 These applications involve a degree of cold working
since the alloy is shaped by either bending, drawing or
swaging, all of which result in the formation of a
wrought structure.
 Alloys having wrought structures tend to have much
higher values of proportional limit than equivalent
alloys which have not been cold worked.
 It is this property coupled with a relatively high
modulus of elasticity which makes wrought stainless
steel wires suitable for orthodontics and wrought
stainless steel sheets suitable for denture bases.
Austenitic stainless steel is preferable to the ferritic alloy
because of : •
 Greater ductility & ability to undergo more cold work
without fracturing
 Substantial strengthening during cold working.
 Greater ease of welding.
 Ability to overcome sensitization.
 Less critical grain growth.
 Comparative ease in formation
An outline of some steel transformation
 Macabe John F, Walls Angus W . Applied Dental Materials, 9th Edition; wiley blackwell, March 2008

Diagram illustrating the hardening and tempering cycle of heat treatments

which can be used on steel
 Macabe John F, Walls Angus W . Applied Dental Materials, 9th Edition; wiley blackwell, March 2008

The iron–carbon phase diagram (up to 2% carbon), slightly simplified for clarity.
 Designated as AISI series 400
 provide good corrosion resistance at a low cost when
high strength is not required.
 They cannot be hardened by heat treatment or readily
work-hardened.
 Consequently they have little application in dentistry.
 http://www.tikalon.com/blog/blog.php?article=2017/3D_stainless

This structure can be seen as a gathering of cubes with atoms at the edges and an
atom in the center of every cube.
 Below 723 °C, the remaining austenite is no longer
stable and decomposes into the eutectoid mixture of
ferrite + cementite
 Austenite = ferrite + cementite
 This mixture is called pearlite because of the fine-
grained banded or lamellar structure which gives a
pearly lustre in polished sections
 Fe forms a carbide, Fe3C, called cementite, which
corresponds to 6-7% C.
 However, cementite is in fact only metastable, the
true equilibrium is between iron and graphite.
 Eutectic refers to the behavior of an alloy of two
mutually insoluble metals during crystallization.
 An alloy containing 0.8% carbon is known as the
eutectoid alloy.
 Alloys with greater concentrations of carbon are called
hypereutectoid alloys and those with smaller carbon
contents, hypoeutectoid alloys.
 Both hypereutectoid and hypoeutectoid alloys consist
of a mixture of ferrite and cementite at room
temperature.
 The hypereutectoid alloys contain relatively greater
amounts of cementite whilst the hypoeutectoid alloys
contain greater amounts of ferrite.
 It is named after the German metallurgist Adolf
Martens
 Designated as AISI series 400
 If, instead of slow cooling, the austenite is quenched
(cooled very rapidly) say by dropping into water), the
transformation from f.c.c. to b.c.c. still occurs, but the
decomposition into ferrite + cementite cannot happen
 It results, therefore, in a supersaturated solution of C
in b.c.c. iron; this is called martensite (actually it is
distorted enough that it is better called bodycentred
tetragonal when there is carbon present in the cell)
Darvell B W. Materials Science for Dentistry - CRC Press; 9 edition (June 5, 2009)
 These alloys can be heat-treated in the same manner
as plain carbon steels, with similar results.
 Because of their high yield strength and hardness,
martensitic stainless steels are used for surgical and
cutting instruments
 Its brittleness can be reduced by using a low
temperature heat treatment, called tempering.
 The alloy is heated to a temperature in the range 200–
400ºC, at which martensite partially converts to ferrite
and cementite.
 The behavior of stainless steel 304 orthodontic wires
during intraoral exposure was investigated by using torque
testing and magnetic measurements.
 The results showed that
(1) the stainless steel wire resistance to torque increases with
the time of intraoral exposure
(2) the ferromagnetic resonance line intensity increases with
the time of exposure in the mouth
(3) both results suggest that resistance to twist increases
because the volume fraction of martensite increases with
the time of exposure in the mouth
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
 The surface of stainless steel is highly prone to
oxidation, but its passive surface oxide film blocks
significant oxygen diffusion to the underlying alloy,
thus limiting further oxidation.
 Severe strain hardening produces highly stressed
regions that are anodic to less stressed regions in the
presence of saliva
 Organic or inorganic deposits and any site of surface
roughness on a metal may result in localized
concentrations of cell corrosion
 A common cause of stainless steel corrosion is the
incorporation of bits of carbon steel or a similar metal
in its surface.
 Such a situation results in an electrochemical cell that
may cause considerable corrosion
When austenitic stainless steel is heated to between
approximately 400 °C and 900 °C

iron-chromium carbides precipitate along the grain

boundaries and chromium is depleted near the grain
boundaries below concentrations necessary for protection

the stainless steel becomes susceptible to intergranular

corrosion, and partial disintegration of the weakened alloy
may result

This phenomenon is called sensitization

 reduce the carbon content of the steel to such an
extent that carbide precipitation cannot occur.

 Elements such as titanium and tantalum, which

preferentially form carbides, can be added to the
stainless steel to preserve the level of chromium when
the metal is exposed to elevated temperatures. This
process is called stabilization.
 The effect is named after
German engineer Johann
Bauschinger
 when a loop is bent in a wire, it
is differentially stretched so that
the outer surface becomes more
work hardened and thus has
better spring properties than the
inner surface.
 If the spring is deflected in the
same direction as the previous
bending, its elastic recovery is
better than if it is deflected in
the opposite direction
 This is known as the
Bauschinger effect.
STRESS AND STRAIN
 Stress is the internal distribution of the load ,defined
as force per unit area where as Strain is the internal
distortion produced by the load ,defined as deflection
per unit length
ELASTIC MODULUS (YOUNG’S MODULUS OR
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY)
If any stress value equal to or less than proportional limit
is divided by its corresponding strain value ,a constant of
proportionality will result, which is known as the
modulus of elasticity. elastic modulus describes the
relative stiffiness or rigidity of a material ,which is
measured by the slope of elastic region of the strain-
stress graph
Anusavice KJ, Shen C, Rawls HR, editors. Phillips' science of dental materials. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2012 Sep 27
 Proportional limit – the stress above which stress is
no longer proportional to strain
 Elastic limit – the maximum stress a material can
withstand before it becomes plastically deformed
 Yield strength or proof stress – the stress required
to produce a given amount of plastic strain
 Ultimate tensile strength, shear strength,
compressive strength, and flexural strength – each
of which is a measure of stress required to fracture a
material
Kapila S, Sachdeva R. Mechanical properties and clinical applications of orthodontic wires. American Journal of
Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics. 1989 Aug 1;96(2):100-9
Flexibility
 In an orthodontic appliance, a spring is often bend a
considerable distance under the influence of a small
stress. In such a case, the structure is said to be flexible
 The maximum flexibility is defined as the flexural
strain that occurs when the material is stressed to its
proportional limit
 it means precisely the amount of energy absorbed
within a unit volume of a structure when it is stressed
to its proportional limit.
 The resilience of two or more materials can be
compared by observing the areas under the elastic
region of their stress strain plots assuming that they
are plotted on the same scale.
 The material with the larger elastic area has the higher
resilience.
 Toughness is defined as the amount of elastic and
plastic deformation energy required to fracture a
material.
 Fracture toughness is a measure of the energy
required to propagate critical flaws in the structure.
 Toughness is measured as the total area under the
stress-strain graph
 For an applied tensile force the maximum degree of
extension is a measure of the ductility of the metal or
alloy.
 For an applied compressive force the maximum degree
of compression is a measure of malleability.
 These changes occur when the stress is greater than
the yield stress and at relatively low temperatures.
 The properties of the material are altered, becoming
harder and stronger with a higher value of yield stress
 Cold working is sometimes referred to as work
hardening due to the effect on mechanical properties.
Few examples of cold working are:
 The formation of wires, in which an alloy is forced
through a series of circular dies of gradually decreasing
diameter. The resulting fibrous grain structure is
responsible for the special springy properties
possessed by most wires.
 The bending of wires or clasps during the construction
and alteration of appliances.
 The swaging of stainless steel denture bases
 An increase in the elastic properties of a stainless steel
wire can be obtained by heating it to temperatures
between 400 °C and 500 °C for 5 to 120 seconds after it
has been cold-worked.
 This stress-relief heat treatment promotes the recovery
annealing stage, which removes residual stresses
introduced during manipulation of the wire.
 Thus, it stabilizes the shape of the appliance.
 Stainless steel components are often joined by silver
solders, which are alloys of silver, copper, and zinc to
which elements such as tin and indium may be added
to lower the fusion temperature.

 flux used for soldering stainless steel also contains a

fluoride to dissolve the passivating surface film formed
by chromium.
 A needlelike, nonluminous, gas-air flame may be used
to minimize annealing of the metal surrounding the
joint.
 The reducing zone of the flame should be used.
 The soldering should be observed in a shadow, against
a black background, so that the temperature can be
judged by the color of the work piece.
 The color should never exceed a dull red
 Prior to soldering, the parts should be tack-welded for
alignment during the soldering procedure.
 Then flux should be applied, and the heavier-gauge part
should be heated first.
 Flux must cover all of the areas to be soldered before heat is
applied.
 As soon as the flux fuses, the solder alloy should be added
and heating continued until the solder flows around and
within the joint.
 After the solder has flowed, the work should be
immediately removed from the heat source and quenched
in water.
 Flat structures such as bands and brackets are usually
joined by spot welding, which produces a large
electrical current that is forced by the electrode to flow
through a limited area (spot) on the overlapped
materials that are to be welded.

 The interfacial resistance of the materials to the

current flow produces intense localized heating and
fusion of the overlapped metals
 No solder is employed.
 Ideally, melting is confined to the junction area
 The strength of the welded joint decreases with an
increase in the area of recrystallization of the adjacent
wrought structure
 The joint strength increases with the area of the weld.
 The welded joint is susceptible to corrosion, primarily
because of the loss of passivation caused by
sensitization and the localized stress at the interface
between the weld area and the surrounding wrought
structure.
 Nomograms are fixed charts which display
mathematical functions, provided each scale is
adjusted in space appropriately .
 When constructed properly, the relationship between
its parameters will be given by a straight line; in other
words, the extended line between any two properties
(for example, A and B) will yield the third (for
example, C).
 A reference wire is chosen (0.012”SS)
and given a value of 1 . The strength ,
stiffness and range of other wires are
calculated to this reference

Kusy RP. On the use of nomograms to

determine the elastic property ratios of
orthodontic arch wires. American Journal of
Orthodontics. 1983 May 1;83(5):374-81.
Kusy RP. On the use of nomograms to determine the elastic property ratios of orthodontic
arch wires. American Journal of Orthodontics. 1983 May 1;83(5):374-81
Kusy RP. On the use of nomograms to determine the elastic property ratios of
orthodontic arch wires. American Journal of Orthodontics. 1983 May 1;83(5):374-81
1) Orthodontic brackets
2) Orthodontic bands
3) Stainless steel is used for making auxiliaries.
Austenitic stainless steel is used for these auxiliaries
e.g. Lingual button, Lingual Cleats; Lingual Sheath
4) Ligature wires are made up of stainless steel wires.
5) It can be used for making different instruments like
different types of pliers. For this austenite stainless
steel is used. For making cutting pliers Martensitic
stainless steel is used.
6) Stainless steel wires are used in making Uprighting
springs and mini springs.
7) It is used for making instrument stands, instrument
trays, impression trays etc.
8) Different gauges of stainless steel round wires are used
for the fabrication of different components of
removable appliances like clasps, springs, labial bows
etc.
9) Stainless steel wires can be used in fixed orthodontic
treatment with edgewise appliances.
STAINLESS STEEL
  Orthodontic robots allow painless tooth uprighting,
rotating, and vertical repositioning, as well as rapid
tissue repair. A new stainless-steel wire that uses
nanotechnology is being studied that combines ultra-
high strength with good deformability, corrosion
resistance, and surface finish

 Nanosized stainless-steel crystals incorporated into

suture needles have been developed.

Bumb SS, Bhaskar DJ, Punia H. Nanorobots and challenges faced by nanodentistry. Guident. 2013 Sep 1;6(10):67-
9.
 When nanosheets of WS2 are at the interface under high
loads, the sliding occurs at the interface between these thin
sheets of exfoliated nanoparticles, thereby reducing the
coefficient of friction.
 Furthermore, the IF-WS2 nanoparticles act as a protection
against oxidation of the metal surface
 These coatings may be applied to other orthodontic
appliances and materials like brackets and self-ligating
systems and to initial treatment flexible wires such as the
various Ni–Ti arches. We assume that coating both wire
and bracket, both made of SS for example, should show
even lower friction levels due to the elimination of the
corrosion factors.
NICKEL FREE STAINLESS STEEL
 nitrogen is the most promising substitute for nickel
 It is a gas at room temperature, stabilizes austenitic
phase, increases the corrosion resistance, and prevents
the formation of the sigma phase.
 Nitrogen dissolves interstitially in austenite structure
in relatively large quantities, causing a large number of
solution hardening.
 The resulting 18−8 steels with a nitrogen content of
0.3%, while retaining the 6% nickel, retained austenite
structure and were characterized by both increased
strength and yield point
 The development of technology has enabled the
introduction of more than 1% of nitrogen to the steel,
which resulted in increase in strength by 134%, with
decrease of elongation by only 8%.
 A characteristic feature of nitrogen-containing nickel-
free austenitic stainless steels is the lack of
ferromagnetism.
 This is due to the strong effect of stabilizing austenite
by nitrogen, which prevents the formation of
martensite, even in the most extreme conditions of
cold-working or cryogenic cooling.
 These steels, even after a strong deformation, remain
paramagnetic.
 In a simulated biological environment, 316L steel
shows pitting corrosion. Nickel-free austenitic
stainless steel showed no corrosion of this type in all
the electrolytes.
 Moreover, by preventing precipitation of M23C6
carbides, nitrogen reduces the risk of intergranular
corrosion
 Nickel-free austenitic stainless steels containing
nitrogen are very promising metallic biomaterials.
 They can be implemented as implants in the form of:
stabilizing bone plates, screws or wires
 Young’s modulus of obtained steels is about 210 GPa,
which is slightly higher than in conventional stainless
steel 316L (~170 GPa)
 Austenitization by adsorbed nitrogen contribute to
higher corrosion resistance, which may be a key factor
in providing higher cytocompatibility of produced
materials.
 Multistranded wires are made of stainless steel and
are composed of specified numbers of thin wire
sections coiled around each other to provide a round
or rectangular cross-section
 the stiffness of a triple-stranded 0.0175-inch (3 X
0.008-inch) stainless steel arch wire was similar to that
of 0.010 inch single-stranded stainless steel wire
 The multistranded wire was also 25% stronger than the
O.OlO-inch stainless steel wire.
 The 0.0175 inch triple stranded wire and 0.016inch
nitinol wire demonstrated similar stiffnesses
 Ingram, Gipe, and Smith noted that titanium alloy
wires and multistranded stainless steel wires have low
stiffness when compared with solid stainless steel
wires.
 The investigators also found that most multistranded
wires had a springback similar to that of nitinol, but a
larger springback when compared with solid stainless
steel or beta-titanium wires.
 Unlike stainless steel wires, in which springback
decreases with increasing thickness, the titanium and
multistranded wires have springback properties that
are relatively independent of wire size.
 In contrast, Schaus and Nikolai, 13 using a simulated
arch form, noted that multistranded wires were less
flexible than suggested by theory or previous tests.
 They indicated that factors such as interbracket
distances, wire curvature, direction of activation
relative to the curved arch form, bracket width,
dimensions of bracket slot relative to wire size, and
friction between bracket and wire substantially affect
the flexural stiffness of the arch wire.
 Can be twisted, co axial or straight woven
 AJ Wilcock Sr, in collaboration with PR Begg,
developed heat treated steel wires that had the
advantage of being more resilient and having higher
tensile strength.
 These wires were developed mainly for use with Begg’s
light wire technique.
 These wires (AJW) are graded according to increasing
order of tensile strength.
 Since these wires were developed in Australia to be
used with Begg’s technique, hence are popularly called
Australian wire
 AJW wires are available according to the straightening
processes:
Spinner straightening:
 It is a mechanical process of straightening resistant
materials usually in the cold drawn condition.
 The wire is pulled through rotating bronze rollers
which twist the wire into straight condition.
 The disadvantage of this process is that it results in
permanent deformation and decreases yield strength
value as the wires are strain softened
Pulse straightening:
 It is a recent and more accepted method of wire
straightening.
 Here the wire is pulled in a special machine, which
permits lower diameters of high tensile wires to be
straightened.
 The surface has a smoother finish and therefore lower
friction.
 Pulse straightened wires are better in terms of ultimate
tensile strength, high load deflection rate, significantly
higher working range, and lower frictional resistance
 All wire specimens were found to possess rough and
irregular surfaces, along with excessive porosity. Surface
inspection of the images showed that irregularity and
porosity increased with higher grades of the Australian
wire.
 the carbon content is well above the values reported for
typical 18/8 stainless steel wire. Although EDS cannot be
used to quantify light elements such as carbon, and thus
the results should not be used on an absolute basis, data
from this analysis reveal carbon content that is almost 10
times higher than the standard value.
 different tempers did not show variation in the
composition of alloys.
 The alloy’s microstructure is composed of a mixture of
austenitic and delta-ferritic phases
 Chromium content is high (18% to 26%) and nickel
content is low (4% to 7%)
 Most grades contain 2%to 3% molybdenum.
 The most common grade is AISI 2205
Duplex stainless steels have
 high weldability
 higher tensile and yield strengths than austenitic or
ferritic stainless steels
 higher toughness than austenitic types
 more ductile than ferritic ones
 due to the presence of the austenitic phase, it
corrosion resistance is good
 Kusy RP. On the use of nomograms to determine the elastic property ratios of
orthodontic arch wires. American Journal of Orthodontics. 1983 May 1;83(5):374-81
 Bumb SS, Bhaskar DJ, Punia H. Nanorobots and challenges faced by nanodentistry.
Guident. 2013 Sep 1;6(10):67-9.
 Kusy RP. Orthodontic biomaterials: from the past to the present. The Angle
Orthodontist. 2002 Dec;72(6):501-12.
 Kapila S, Sachdeva R. Mechanical properties and clinical applications of orthodontic
wires. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics. 1989 Aug
1;96(2):100-9.
 Sandhu SS, Shetty VS, Mogra S, Varghese J, Sandhu J, Sandhu JS. Efficiency, behavior, and
clinical properties of superelastic NiTi versus multistranded stainless steel wires: a
prospective clinical trial. The Angle Orthodontist. 2012 Jan 6;82(5):915-21.
 Wilcock AJ. Applied materials engineering for orthodontic wires. Australian orthodontic
journal. 1989 Mar;11(1):22.
 Redlich M, Katz A, Rapoport L, Wagner HD, Feldman Y, Tenne R. Improved orthodontic
stainless steel wires coated with inorganic fullerene-like nanoparticles of WS2
impregnated in electroless nickel–phosphorous film. dental materials. 2008 Dec
1;24(12):1640-6.
 Pelsue BM, Zinelis S, Bradley TG, Berzins DW, Eliades T, Eliades
G. Structure, composition, and mechanical properties of
Australian orthodontic wires. The Angle Orthodontist. 2009
Jan;79(1):97-101.
 Brantley WA, Eliades T. Orthodontic materials: scientific and clinical
aspects. Thieme; 2011.
 Anusavice KJ, Shen C, Rawls HR, editors. Phillips' science of dental
materials. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2012 Sep 27.
 Arango-santander S, Luna-ossa CM. Stainless Steel : Material Facts for
the Orthodontic Practitioner. Rev Nac Odontol. 2016;11:77-88.
 Macabe John F, Walls Angus W . Applied Dental Materials, 9th
Edition; wiley blackwell, March 2008
 Jurczyk Mieczyslaw. Bionanomaterials for Dental Applications - Pan
Stanford Publishing; 1 edition (October 26, 2012)
 Darvell B W. Materials Science for Dentistry - CRC Press; 9 edition
(June 5, 2009)