Chem 112

Module 7
The Chemistry
of Water
The Molecular Structure of Water
One oxygen atom
Two hydrogen atoms
Electrons spend more time near the oxygen and less
near the hydrogen
Water molecule is polar
The Hydrogen Bonding

Strong hydrogen bonds occurs among polar covalent

molecules containing H and one of the three small,
highly electronegative elements, F, N,O
Intermolecular Forces in H2O
Water:
One molecule can participate
in four hydrogen bonds with
other molecules.

Because of the hydrogen

bond, water has a boiling
point 100oC higher than if
the bond were not present.
 Intermolecular Forces in H2O

Permanent dipole-dipole interactions occur between polar

covalent molecules because of the attraction of the + atoms of
one molecule to the - atoms of another molecule.
5
Intermolecular Forces in H2O
Like dissolves like: solubility of methanol in water.
Intermolecular Forces in H2O
Aqueous Solutions of Ionic Compounds

Hydration shells around an aqueous ion.

Intermolecular Forces in H2O
Aqueous Solutions of Ionic Compounds
 Intermolecular Forces in Solution
Formation
Substances with similar types of intermolecular forces dissolve in each
other. “LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE”

When a solute dissolves in a solvent, the

following forces must be comparable in
strength in order for a solution to form.
1) solute-solute interactions and
2) solvent-solvent interactions
3) solute-solvent interactions
A= solvent molecules
B=solute molecules
 Effect of Temperature on
Solubility of Ionic Compounds
Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution is the amount of
solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent.

Several quantitative expressions of concentration

are used in chemistry.
Expressing Concentrations
1. MOLARITY (M)
The molar concentration (cx) of a solution of a chemical
species X is the number of moles of the solute species
that is contained in one liter of the solution (not one liter
of the solvent).

Question: A solution is prepared by dissolving 25.8 grams

on magnesium chloride (MgCl2, FM = 95.21) in water to produce
250.0 mL of solution. Calculate the molarity of the chloride ion
in the solution.
Expressing Concentrations
2. PERCENTAGE
weight of analyte x 100%
weight % (w/w)=
weight of solution
volume of analyte x 100%
volume % (v/v)=
volume of solution
weight per
weight of analyte (g) x 100%
volume % (w/v)=
volume of solution (mL)
Expressing Concentrations
2. PERCENTAGE
1. Nitric Acid is sold as 70 % by wt. means ……

2. 5 % by vol. aqueous solution of methanol

means …..

3. 5 % wt. / vol AgNO3 indicates …..

Expressing Concentrations
2. PERCENTAGE
Weight % and Volume % do not depend on the units used
(the numerator and denominator must be expressed in the
same units)
Weight % is temperature independent
To avoid uncertainty, always specify the type of percent
composition being used.

Question: The label on a 0.750-L bottle of

Italian chianti indicates “11.5% alcohol by volume.”
How many liters of alcohol does the wine contain?
Expressing Concentrations
2. PERCENTAGE
For trace amounts of analyte….
Parts per thousand, ppt = (weight analyte/weight sample) x103
Parts per million, ppm = (weight analyte/weight sample) x 106
Parts per billion, ppb = (weight analyte/weight sample) x 109

Question: Find the concentration of calcium

(in ppm) in a 3.50-g pill that contains 40.5 mg of
Ca.
Expressing Concentrations
2. MOLALITY (m)
amount of solute (mol) mol
Molality (m)= =
kg of solvent kg

Molality is independent of temperature!

Question: Calculate the molality of an
aqueous solution that is 10.0 % by weight ethanol
(C2H5OH, FM = 46.058)
Interconverting Concentration
Units
To convert a term based on amount (mol) to one based on mass,
you need the molar mass. These conversions are similar to mass-
mole conversions.
To convert a term based on mass to one based on volume, you
need the solution density. Working with the mass of a solution
and the density (mass/volume), you can obtain volume from
mass and mass from volume.
Molality involves quantity of solvent, whereas the other
concentration terms involve quantity of solution.
Water Quality
 Water Hardness
 pH
 Phosphates (PO43-)
 Nitrites and Nitrates (NO2-, NO3-)
 Ammonium (NH4+)
 Dissolved Oxygen
 Turbidity
Water Quality
1. Water Hardness
 Water hardness is caused by
divalent ions, especially Ca2+ and
Mg2+.
• Concerns
– Scaling
– Cleaning
– Public Health
Water Quality
1. Water Hardness
Water Hardness Rating
mg/L as CaCO3 Degree of Hardness

0-60 Soft water

61-120 Moderately hard water

121-180 Hard water

>180 Very hard water

From USGS
Water Quality
2. pH
• pH is criteria of acidity and baseness of water.
• pH = -log [H30+]
• [H30+] > 10-7 => pH < 7 (acid)
• [H30+] = 10-7 => pH = 7 (neutral)
• [H30+] < 10-7 => pH > 7 (base)

• FACTORS THAT AFFECT pH in WATER. algal

blooms, bacterial activity, water turbulence,
chemicals flowing into the water body, sewage
overflows, pollution.
Algal Bloom
Sewage Overflow
Water Quality
2. pH of natural waters

Sea water
due to humic acid

Limestone, marble, CO3 rich

Pure rain, snow

Modified from www.waterwatch.org

http://www.vic.waterwatch.org.au/fortheteacher/manual/sect4f.htm
Estuaries

Modified from www.waterwatch.org

http://www.vic.waterwatch.org.au/fortheteacher/manual/sect4f.htm
Water Quality
3. Phosphates (PO43-)
• Natural unpolluted water contains less than 0.1
mg/L of all the PO4 (higher concentrations are
caused by human pollution).
• Sources of pollution:
– phosphoric manures
– washing and detergents
– sewage
– synthetic fertilizers
Blue green algae
Water Quality
4. Nitrites and Nitrates (NO2-, NO3-)
• Nitrates (NO3-) are the major polluters of ground
water and also of many effluent and influent
waters.
• Sources of pollution:
– artificial manures
– intensive stockbreeding
– poor infrastructure (sewage)
• Can lead to: eutrophication of natural water systems
(overproduction of vegetation)
Water Quality
5. Ammonium (NH4+)
• The presence of ammonium in water shows
that the water was in contact with rotting
organic materials, fecals, food wastes, etc
Water Quality
6. Dissolved Oxygen
• DO is the measurement of oxygen
dissolved in water and available for fish
and other aquatic life.

• Indicates health of an aquatic system.

• Can range from 0-18 ppm.

• Most natural water systems require 5-6

ppm to support a diverse population.
Water Quality
6. Dissolved Oxygen
Increase in organic
waste

Increase in algae/plant
vegetation

Decrease in DO available
to organisms

Leads to changes in ecosystem as

organisms needing lots of DO are
replaced by organisms needing little.
Water Quality
6. Dissolved Oxygen
Potential Causes of Low Dissolved oxygen
Natural
• increased sunlight or other climate factors
• increased nutrient availability
• Changes in ocean properties
• Changes in river input (e.g.: drought)
• Changes in weather conditions
Artificial
• human loading of nutrients or organic material
• Changes in river input (eg: diversion)
Water Quality
6. Turbidity
Measures how “murky” the water is
Estimates:
• Mineral fraction
• Organics
• Inorganics
• Soluble organic compounds
• Plankton
• Microscopic organisms
Water Quality
Measuring Turbidity
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)
 Water Quality
Causes of High Turbidity Effects of Highly Turbid Water
• In open waters, • Modify light penetration
phytoplankton • Increase sedimentation rate
• Closer to shore, • Settling clay particles can
particulates resuspended suffocate
bottom sediments (wind) newly hatched larvae
• Fine particulate material also
• Organic detritus from can damage sensitive gill
stream and/or structures
wastewater discharges. • Decrease organism resistance to
• Dredging operations disease
• Floods • Prevent proper egg and larval
development
• Too many bottom-feeding • Reduced photosynthesis can lead
fish (such as carp) to lower daytime release of
oxygen
Water Pollution
• Water pollution occurs when harmful substances are
released into the water in large quantities which cause
damage to people, wildlife, or habitat or indirectly into water
bodies without proper treatment to remove harmful
compounds.
Contaminants in Water

Inorganic water pollutants include:

1. Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially
sulfur dioxide from power plants)
2. Ammonia - from food processing waste
3. Chemical waste as industrial by-products
4. Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and
phosphates--which are found in storm water run
off from agriculture, as well as commercial and
residential use
Contaminants in Water
Inorganic water pollutants include:

5. Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban

storm water runoff) and acid mine drainage

6. Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction

sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land
clearing sites.
 Consequences of Water Pollution
Eutrophication
is characterized by excessive plant and algal
growth due to the increased availability of one or
more limiting growth factors needed for
photosynthesis such as sunlight, carbon dioxide,
and nutrient fertilizers.
• The consequence is the creation of dense blooms
of noxious, foul-smelling phytoplankton that
reduce water clarity and harm water quality.
• water without oxygen is called anoxic
Consequences of Water Pollution
Eutrophication in a body of water…
Consequences of Water Pollution
Eutrophication in a body of water…
Consequences of Water Pollution
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation is the intake of a chemical and its

concentration in the organism by all possible means, including
contact, respiration and ingestion.

Biomagnification occurs when the chemical is passed up the

food chain to higher trophic levels, such that in predators it
exceeds the concentration to be expected where equilibrium
prevails between an organism and its environment
Consequences of Water Pollution
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
 Minamata, Japan
“Minamata is a small Japanese
fishing town living in the shadow of
the chemical factory of the Chisso
Corporation. When the factory
began dumping large amounts of
mercury in the bay in 1956
thousands of people began to
develop symptoms of mercury
poisoning. Almost all the towns
cats went insane... Birds fell out of
the sky. Panic gripped the city. In
time, thousands of people would
die from the poisoning.”
Minamata, Japan
 Minamata, Japan
The financial compensation was too little too late for the
thousands of victims
In a tremendous “loss of face”, corporate official were
forced to apologize in public
Water Scarcity
70%
WATER

2.5%
FRESHWATER

Shared by around
6.8 billion people 1%
ACCESSIBLE WATER