Seismic Interpretation

Components of Petroleum System

There are five components of

Petroleum System. These
all components are
required in an given area
for oil & gas

• Source Rock
• Reservoir rock
• Cap
• Trap
• Migration Path
Seismic technique and Hydrocarbon traps
The most common and important use of
seismic method is to reveal information
about the reservoir. The following
information can be obtained using the
seismic exploration technique

• The dip of the reservoir rock;

• The presence of trapping faults
• Three-dimensional picture of the reservoir
body.
Anticlinal Structure Trap
Seismic technique and Hydrocarbon traps

The great successes of seismic method in the past have been in the
search for structural traps. To a smaller extent, and with much less
certainty, seismic tecjnique is now contributing to the search for
stratigraphic traps.

Stratigraphic Trap
Basic Concepts

Acoustic Impedance
Seismic exploration technique uses sound waves to investigate
subsurface geological information. Mostly seismic reflections are
used in oil & gas exploration. The basic physical property that
governs the reflections is acoustic impedance.

Acoustic impedance= Interval velocity*density

Reflections are created at the surfaces/boundaries where we have

acoustic impedance contrast. Usually we find this contrast at the
boundaries of different lithologies.
Basic concept

Acoustic Impedance:
If there is no acoustic impedance contrast at the boundaries of
different lithologies, we would not be able to detect the change in
lithology by using using seismic reflection.

Exercise
Can we detect the boundary of two lithologies using seismic
technique having upper layer with density=2.3 g/cm3 and velocity
2300 m/s and lower layer density=2.5 g/cm3 and velocity 2116 m/s
Basic concepts

Reflection strength
As the acoustic impedance contrast increases more prominent is
the reflection on seismic section.

Reflection strength is defined by reflection coefficient (RC)

RC=V2D2-V1D1/V2D2+V1D1
V2 = Velocity of layer 2
V1 =Velocity of layer 1
D1&D2 =density of layer 1 &2
Frequency of wave
Number of time wave is repeated per second is called frequency
• EX 3.7 a
Problems in Exploration Seismology and their
solutions
EX 3 ChapterNo.3 (Gadallah & Fisher)
A P-wave that is propagating in a medium having
velocity 2000 m/s is incident on a medium
having velocity of 2500 m/s at an angle of 15
degrees from normal to interface. Determine the
angles at which all resulting waves propogate.
Basic concepts

The effect of depth

• Acoustic impedance of different rocks increases with depth. The
direct result of this phenomena is less acoustic impedance contrast
between different lithologies. Therefore it is sometimes difficult to
resolve geological information at greater depth.
• Weaker seismic signal with depth. Because seismic signal losses
strength with depth
• Higher frequencies are observed at greater rate as compared to
lower frequencies. At greater depth we are left with only larger
wavelength waves. Hence this makes poorer resolution with depth
Basic concepts

Vertical Resolution
This determines how thick geological unit can be resolved on
seismic section. If the wavelength is less than ¼ of the unit we
cannot resolve the unit. This is called limit of separability.
Basic concepts

Horizontal Resolution
In reality for seismic study we are dealing with seismic waves not
seismic rays. Before applying migration reflection signals are from a
zone rather than single point. This zone is called Fresenel zone.
The radius of Feresenal zone is expressed as

Radius of zone=
Average Velocity/2*(SQRT (Two Way travel Time/dominant frequency)
Basic Concepts

Phase & Polarity

There are number of type of
seismic pulses, for
simplification and for
interpretation purposes we can
divide in two groups. Minimum
phase and zero phase.
Minimum phase signal has
energy concentrated at its front,
while in zero phase energy is
distributed symmetrically.
Well to Seismic Tie

Tying well and seismic data is very important step to begin the
seismic interpretation. In this process we have to analyze the well
data. One of the important steps in interpretation seismic data is
to establish relationship between seismic reflectors and
stratigraphy. The relationship can be established by using
Synthetic Seismogram. The process of generation of Synthetic
Seismogram is called forward modeling
Well to Seismic Tie

Forward modeling

Forward modeling is the operation that takes a geological model and

constructs the seismic response.

1. The first step in this synthesis is based on the synthetic seismogram We

consider a stack of horizontal geological layers, and a vertical seismic ray
reflected from them.
2. We multiply the sonic & density logs(well data) to get acoustic impedance
log.
3. The next step is to convert the acoustic impedance log (which is in depth
domain) in Two way travel time using sonic, which is inverse of velocity.
This velocity can be utilized to convert well data to time domain.
Well to Seismic Tie

Forward modeling (continued..)

There are two issues with sonic log
i) absence of sonic log in shallower part, usually sonic
is run in deeper reservoir part.
ii) Miscalibration of sonic tool, which tend to accumulate over entire
log

In order to overcome these two problems related with sonic log, we

have to use some direct measurements of Time & Depth to calibrate
the Time-Depth relationship obtained from sonic log.
Well to Seismic Tie

Forward Modeling

Diagram showing steps of Synthetic

generation
Well to Seismic Tie

Forward Modeling

A reflectivity curve is calculated using the following formula

RC=V2D2-V1D1/V2D2+V1D1
Velocity and densities can be obtained from log curves density &
sonic Then wavelet is convolved with Reflectivity series.The choice
of the wavelet can make considerable difference to appearance of
synthetic traces. There are many possible approaches for the
selection of the wavelet.
Well to Seismic Tie

The most important two ways of selecting the wavelets are

• To make synthetics using theoretical wavelet of zero or minimum

phase
• To extract the most optimum wavelet from the seismic data.
The goodness of fit can be matched by cross correlation.
Well to Seismic Tie

Forward modeling

This synthetic is one dimensional and it is good approximation with

the acquired seismic data. However we need to remember some
points in this regard.

• we are working at normal incidence, but there must be a major

mismatch of amplitude introduced by geometrical divergence.

• we think of the synthetic as being 1-D, representing the reflections

occurring at points along a vertical raypath, we know that reflections
actually occur over a reflection zone whose size increases with
depth.
Interpretation of seismic section

After establishing the relationship of seismic reflections and well

data, it is required to mark the extents of different geological
formations on available seismic data. The purpose of interpretation
is to reveal the geological information. In the following section some
examples are discussed to understand the interpretation of
geological information using seismic section.
Interpretation of seismic section

Normal seismic section has

time as vertical axis and
horizontal axis is labeled
with shot points, indicating
the positions of seismic
shots.

Figure: Example of seismic section

Interpretation of seismic section

Sedimentary Layers
Seismic section indicates the
continuity or discontinuity of
the subsurface deposited
sediments.

Geological Message in both

of these section is same i.e.
stability of geological layers
and depositional surface
was horizontal and not
disturbed by post
depositional tectonics.
Interpretation of seismic section

Sedimentary Layers
In this (Fig.) we have a
good continuity at the top
and at the bottom But in the
middle we see a poor zone
of continuity. This situation
shows a different type of
sediment deposition at the
top, bottom and then at the
middle.
Interpretation of seismic section

Sedimentary Layers
The Fig shows that there
is a slight deformation
forming anticline
Interpretation of seismic section

Sedimentary Layers
In this example figure ( ) shows
that the sediments between the
two strongly picked reflections
were being deposited during the
uplift by the tectonic forces.
Interpretation of seismic section

Sedimentary Layers
There can be other
reasons for the thinning of
the reflection intervals, for
example, in this figure the
thinning is associated with
the limited supply of
sediments. The sediments
source is clearly to the
right.
Interpretation of seismic section
Unconformities
This figure is a good
example of an
unconfirmity. There was
an ancient rock mass.
As the erosion starts at
the top left corner of the
section, sediments were
transported to the down-
dip direction until they
came to rest.
Interpretation of seismic section

Faults
Faults are discontinuity in
geological features. These
can be identify on seismic
sections.The age of the
faulting may be specified in
terms of the age of upper
layers, by noting at what
level the fault is no longer
apparent.
Interpretation of seismic section

Faults
The two faults in the
figure has in fact
developed a graben
structure. The two faults
appears to be of the
same age.
Interpretation of seismic section

Faults
Sometimes the faults tells
us about the brittleness of
the rock. A material is said
to brittle if it is subjected to
fracture when put under the
Stress.
Where as a material is said
to be plastic if it remains
deformed under the
stresses only, and return to
original state once the
stresses are removed.
Interpretation of seismic section

Faults
Fault type identification on seismic
section reveals the tectonic history
of the area. Normal faults are
because of extension tectonics,
while reverse faults are due to
compression.
Seismic contouring

Contour maps are

representation of three-
dimensional surface in two
dimension.
Seismic contouring

Procedures of Contouring
• Mark the reflectors and faults on seismic section.
• Digitizing and posting of the values on location map
• Before posting the picked values, we correct the misties as far as
we are able.
• After posting the values on the map join equal values. Now a days
there are different computer aided algorithms are available.
Seismic contouring

Digitizing and posting

This is the process of write the values

at selected locations and label these.
Seismic contouring

Contouring by computer
There are possible two methods for computer contouring

• Gridding
• Triangulation
Seismic contouring

Gridding
The Contouring program that uses
gridding approach, performs the
operation to replace line data into
regular spaced grid data before
contouring.
Seismic contouring

Gridding
One of the important parameters of gridding is grid interval
The distance between two grid points is called grid interval. This can
be different in X and Y direction. The following points should be kept
in mind.

• This should be appropriate to the available data and geological

structure
• Grid interval should be at-least half of the size of the structure to be
contoured
• If the data is too sparse, Grid interval should be of greater size.
• If the data is dense, the grid interval should be small
Seismic contouring

Gridding
There is significant effect of grid
interval on contouring of the
data. Contours are smooth in
case of larger grid interval as
compared to small grid interval. Coarser Grid interval

Fine Grid interval

Seismic contouring

Triangulation
This method is similar to the manual contouring. This involves just
joining of equal values.
Misties
Mismatch of seismic data at one tie point is called mistie
Location Map
Mistie
Line-A Line-A Line-B

Line-B

Tie-Point Showing the Mistie

Types of Mistie

• Unsystematic:
Causes of Unsystematic misties
Static Correction error, noise, processing sequence difference from
line to line within one survey (e.g stacking velocity difference )

• Systematic:
Datum correction difference on different surveys, Display polarity
difference on different lines
Solution of Mistie

The first approach merely accepts the sections as they are, and
attempts to find a simple time correction for each vintage/Survey
The second approach involves reprocessing the older data
according to the new survey’s parameters
Time to depth conversion

We interpret on time sections and it is followed by preparation of

time structure map. This time structure map is required to be
converted in depth domain before suggesting the well position. This
time domain information can be converted into depth domain by
using velocity information.
Time to depth conversion

Average Velocity

The average seismic velocity is the distance traveled by a seismic

wave from the source location to some point on or within the earth
divided by the recorded travel time.

t= one-way traveltime, and T = two-

way traveltime
Time to depth conversion

Interval Velocity

Interval velocity, Vi, is defined as the thickness of a particular layer

divided by the time it takes to travel from the top of the layer to its
base.
The interval velocity is the thickness of a stratigraphic layer, divided
by the time it takes to travel from the top of the layer to its base. The
equation for interval velocity is:
Time to depth conversion

As indicated by the name of

interval velocity of different layers
is discrete function, while
average velocity is continuous
function. The graphical display of
the two types of velocities is
shown in Figure
Time to depth conversion

Root Mean Square Velocity (RMS)

The root-mean-square (RMS) velocity is a weighted average. We

use a weighting process where the amount of weighting is
determined by the value of the interval velocities. The weighting is
accomplished by squaring the interval velocity values.
Time to depth conversion

Well velocities
There are different types of velocity surveys conducted in wells. We
can get velocity information by using.
• Sonic log
• Check shot survey
• VSP survey
Time to depth conversion

Sonic log
Sonic log is delay time, it is reciprocal
of velocity.

Checkshot Survey
In this method, a geophone or
geophone array is lowered into the
borehole source is located at the top
at some offset of the well.
Time to depth conversion

Vertical seismic profile

VSP, is checkshot survey that not
only records the first break, but the
reflected events as well. A VSP
survey produces a narrow seismic
section that is indicative of the
subsurface in the vicinity of the
borehole
Time to depth conversion

Difference between VSP and checkshot survey

• VSPs have the ability to "look" beyond the total depth of the well.
VSP survey records reflections from interfaces below the borehole.
• In a VSP survey, we record data at smaller intervals than we do in a
checkshot survey.
• Checkshot records are short in duration while VSP records are
longer and record a full waveform.
• Checkshot only records first break, while in VSP we record full
signal.
Time depth conversion Methods

Constant Function Method

The constant function or constant velocity function method is a
simple, two-dimensional time-depth relationship. This relationship
may be based on data from any one or more of the following: an
integrated sonic log, a checkshot survey, a VSP, and seismic
processing velocities, This uses one single function for the
conversion.

This method is only used in simple geological condition having less

variation in geology, we cannot apply this technique in complicated
geology having more tectonic disturbances and fault movement.
Time depth conversion methods

• Average or interval Velocity Method

The average or interval velocity method uses more than one
function to convert time to depth. In this method, we generate maps
in order to define the average/interval velocity distribution for
selected horizons. We then use these average/interval velocity
maps to convert seismic times to depth at any chosen location.
We can use three different types velocities for this purpose

• Well velocity
• Apparent velocity
• Seismic velocity
Time to depth conversion

Selection of Average or interval velocities

Selection of average or interval velocity depends upon the nature of
the earth model under consideration. We should consider that
either the velocity increases steadily with increase of depth or it has
discrete velocities verses depth. Sonic log available from an area
can describe about the nature of the subsurface velocity. If the
pattern of the sonic log is discrete then it is recommended to use
interval velocity for time depth conversion
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Till now we have seen the application of seismic exploration

technique for detection of the traps either structure or stratigraphic.
There are some new approaches to quantify the hydrocarbons and
some geological information such as porosity and water saturation
from seismic data.
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

In seismic section there is some reflections which are directly linked

with presence of hydrocarbons. However these should be
interpreted with care. The fluid properties of gas, oil and water
sometimes has significant effect on the seismic amplitude. The
amplitude anomalies on seismic section can be categorized in three
types

• Bright spots
• Dim spots
• Flat spot
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Bright spots
The amplitude of the seismic trace is different for different fluids.
The presence of gas in sand reservoir often produces detectable
changes on seismic section. As the acoustic impedance of gas is
less than the oil and gas, we have chance to get high negative
amplitudes in gas filled sands. Bright spots always has negative
reflection coefficient.
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Flat spot
Flat spot represent the
contact of two fluids,
which may be gas/oil,
gas/water or oil/water.
As name indicates it
appears flat on seismic
section. Following
figure clearly explains
the bright and flat spot
on seismic section
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Dim spots
Sometime amplitudes are reduced and approaches to zero because
of presence of hydrocarbons. Dim spots appear seismic trace
without or low amplitude deflections
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Seismic acoustic impedance Inversion

There are different new techniques which help us to quantify the
useful information of seismic trace. One of the most common used
technique is seismic inversion. Seismic inversion is simply defined
as the transformation of seismic data into pseudoacoustic
impedance logs at every trace.
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Why Seismic Inversion

Following are main advantages of seismic inversion
• A good quality impedance model contains more information than
seismic data. It contains all the information in seismic data without
the complication factors caused by wavelets and adds essential
information from logs. AI volume is result of the integration of data
from seismic, well log, and velocity.
• AI is rock property, it is product of density and velocity, both of
which can be directly measured by well logging.
• AI is closely related to porosity, lithology, pore fluids. It is common to
establish empirical relationships between AI and these rock
properties.
• As layer property, AI can make sequence stratigraphic analysis
easy.
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Frequencies and interpretation

• Seismic data is band limited having
only a range of frequencies, high
frequencies and low frequencies are
missing.
• Why high frequencies are important:
for high resolution.
• Low frequencies are also important if
quantitative interpretation is required.
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Figure Frequency spectrum

Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Inversion methods incorporate external information to reconstruct

the missing information outside the seismic bandwidth
Low frequency information can be derived from log data, prestack
depth, or time migration velocities. Many of these are very low
frequency (0~2 Hz), processing that preserves low frequency is
advantageous. High-frequency information can be derived from well
control or geostatistical analysis.
Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Seismic Section

Acoustic impedance Section

Quantitative analysis of Seismic data

Using log data,

relationship can
be established
between AI and
known rock
properties.
Figure shows
relationship
between gamma
ray log and
acoustic
impedance