ARUSHA TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTOMATION
EET 06102
INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS
Wilson, D.
 INTRODUCTION

• Sensors
• Commonly Detectable Phenomenon
• Physical Principles – How Sensors Work?
• Need for Sensors
• Choosing a Sensor
 Sensor
Sensors
• American National Standards Institute

A device which provides a usable output in

response to a specified measurand

OUTPUT
INTPUT SENSOR
 Sensor
• A sensor acquires a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal suitable for processing
(e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)

•Nowadays common sensors convert

measurement of physical phenomena into an
electrical signal
 Sensor
Transducer
• A device which converts one form of energy to
another
• When input is a physical quantity and output
electrical → Sensor
• A Transducer is more than a sensor. It consists
of a sensor/actuator along with signal
conditioning circuits.
 Sensor
Transducer
Transducer facilitate transduction of signal from
one form to the other.

• Transduction

Is simply refers to energy conversion

Sensor
 Sensor
Commonly Detectable Phenomena
•Biological
•Chemical
•Electric
•Electromagnetic
•Heat/Temperature
•Magnetic
•Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity,
acceleration, etc.)
•Optical
•Radioactivity
 Sensor
Common Conversion Methods
•Chemical

–chemical transport, physical transformation,

electrochemical

•Biological

– biological and physical transformation

 Sensor
Common Conversion Methods
•Physical

–thermoelectric, thermo elastic/thermoplastic,

thermomagnetic, thermo optic, photoelectric,

photo elastic, photo magnetic, electromagnetic

 Sensor
Commonly Measured Quantities

STIMULUS QUANTITY
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization),
Spectrum, Wave Velocity
Biological and Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)
Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field
(amplitude, phase, polarization),
Conductivity, Permittivity
Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase,
polarization), Flux, Permeability
Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity,
Absorption
Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat,
Thermal Conductivity
Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force,
Strain, Stress, Pressure, Torque
 Sensor
Physical Principles
• Amperes' Law

A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

experiences a force (e.g. galvanometer)

•Ohms Law

Voltage is directly proportional to current.

V = IR
 Sensor
• Faraday’s Law of Induction
A coil resist a change in magnetic field by
generating an opposing voltage/current (e.g.
transformer)
• Photoconductive Effect
When light strikes certain semiconductor
materials, the resistance of the material
decreases (e.g. photo resistor)
 Sensor

Choosing a Sensor
 Sensor

• Sensitivity- Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of

the magnitude of response (output signal) to
the magnitude of the quantity being measured
(input signal)
• Readability- Readability is defined as the
closeness with which the scale of the analog
instrument can be read
 Definition
• Range of accuracy- Accuracy of a measuring
system is defined as the closeness of the
instrument output to the true value of the
measured quantity

• Precision- Precision is defined as the ability of

the instrument to reproduce a certain set of
readings within a given accuracy
 Sensitivity
• If the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity
of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.
• If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the
sensitivity varies with the input.
 Sensitivity
• This is the relationship between a change in
the output reading for a given change of the
input.
• Often known as scale factor or instrument
magnification and an instrument with a large
sensitivity will indicate a large movement of
the indicator for a small input change.
 Force, F Output, Vo (V)

Slope = 5 V/kN
Load Cell Output, Vo

Input, Fi (kN)
Block Diagram:

Input, F (kN) Output, Vo (V)

K

Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN
 Example
(1) A 0.01 W/A meter with 5 A fsd, what is V fsd

Rm = W/A x A
= 0.01 x 5 = 0.05 W
Vmax across the Meter will be
= 5 A x 0.05 W
= 0.25 V for fsd.
 Readability

Readability is defined as the ease with which

readings may be taken with an instrument.

• Readability difficulties may often occur due to

parallax errors when an observer is noting the

position of a pointer on a calibrated scale

 Readability
What is the value ?

What is the value ?

What is the value ?

 Accuracy
Is the extent to which a measured value agrees
with a true value
• The difference between the measured value &
the true value is known as ‘Error of
measurement’
• Accuracy is the quality of conformity
i.e. match
 Example: Accuracy

• Who is more accurate when measuring a

block that has a true length of 17.0 cm?
A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 Precision

• The precision of a measurement depends on

the instrument used to measure it.
• For example, how long is this block?
 Example: Precision

Who is more precise when measuring the

same 17.0 cm book?

A:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm

B ::
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
 Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy High Precision

High Precision Low Accuracy
 The person hit the bull's-eye?

Three targets
with three
arrows each to
shoot.

Both Precise but Neither

How do they not
accurate accurate
compare? accurate
and precise nor precise
 Uncertainty

• The word uncertainty casts a doubt about the

exactness of the measurement results

• True value = Estimated value + Uncertainty

• Uncertainty is a situation which involves

imperfect and/or unknown information
 Why Is There Uncertainty?

• Measurements are performed with

instruments, and no instrument can read to an
infinite number of decimal places
Which have Greatest uncertainty in measurement
below?
 Reading a Meterstick

. l2. . . . I . . . . I3 . . . .I . . . . I4. . cm

First digit (known) = 2 2.?? cm

Second digit (known) = 0.7 2.7? cm
Third digit (estimated) between 0.05- 0.08 cm
Length reported = 2.77 cm
or 2.76 cm
or 2.78 cm
 Known + Estimated Digits

In 2.77 cm…

• Known digits 2 and 7 are 100% certain

• The third digit 7 is estimated (uncertain)

• In the reported length, all three digits (2.77

cm) are significant including the estimated one
 Sensor Performance
• All instrumentation systems are characterized
by the system characteristics or system
response
• There are two basic characteristics of
Measuring instruments, they are
– Static character
– Dynamic character
 Static Characteristics

• Sensor which are used to measure the

quantities which are slowly varying with time

or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time,

is called ‘static characteristics’.

 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Accuracy • Dead zone
• Precision • Backlash
• Sensitivity • True value
• Resolution • Hysteresis
• Threshold • Linearity
• Drift • Range or Span
• Error • Bias
• Repeatability • Tolerance
• Reproducibility • Stability
 Resolution
This is defined as the smallest input increment
change that gives some small but definite
numerical change in the output.
 Threshold

This minimum value of input below which

no output can be appeared is known as
threshold of the instrument.

Output

input
 Drift
Is variation in the output of an instrument
which is not caused by any change in the
input; it is commonly caused by internal
temperature changes and component
instability. Sensitivity drift defines the
amount by which instrument’s sensitivity
varies as ambient conditions change.
 Output Output

sensitivity drift
zero
drift

input input

sensitivity drift
Output

zero
drift

input
• Error – The deviation of the true value from
the desired value is called Error

• Repeatability – It is the closeness value of

same output for same input under same
operating condition

• Reproducibility - It is the closeness value of

same output for same input under same
operating condition over a period of time
 Range

• The ‘Range’ is the total range of values which

an instrument is capable of measuring.

• the area of variation between upper and

lower limits on a particular scale.
 Zero stability
The ability of the instrument to return to zero
reading after the measured has returned to
zero
 Dead band

This is the range of different input values over

which there is no change in output value.
Linearity- The ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and linearly
• Backlash – Lost motion or free play of
mechanical elements are known as backlash

• True value – The errorless value of measured

variable is known as true value

• Bias – The Constant Error

• Tolerance- Maximum Allowable error in

Measurement
 Dynamic Characteristics

• The set of criteria defined for the instruments,

which are changes rapidly with time, is
called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
 Dynamic Characteristics
• Steady state periodic
• Transient
• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error
• Steady state periodic – Magnitude has a
definite repeating time cycle

• Transient – Magnitude whose output does not

have definite repeating time cycle

• Speed of response- System responds to

changes in the measured quantity
• Measuring lag

– Retardation type :Begins immediately after

the change in measured quantity

– Time delay lag : Begins after a dead time

after the application of the input
• Fidelity- The degree to which a measurement
system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without error

• Dynamic error- Difference between the true

value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement
system
 Errors in Instruments

• Error = True value – Measured value

or

• Error = Measured value - True value

 Types of Errors

• Error of Measurement

• Instrumental error

• Error of observation

• Based on nature of errors

• Based on control
 Error of Measurement

• Systematic error -Predictable way in

accordance due to conditions change

• Random error - Unpredictable manner

• Parasitic error - Incorrect execution of

measurement
 Instrumental error

• Error of a physical measure

• Error of a measuring mechanism

• Error of indication of a measuring instrument

• Error due to temperature

• Error due to friction

 Error of observation

• Reading error

• Parallax error

• Interpolation error
 Nature of Errors

• Systematic error

• Random error
 Based on control
• Controllable errors
– Calibration errors
– Environmental (Ambient /Atmospheric
Condition) Errors
– Stylus pressure errors
– Avoidable errors
• Non - Controllable errors
 Correction

• Correction is defined as a value which is added

algebraically to the uncorrected result of the
measurement to compensate to an assumed
systematic error.

• Ex : Vernier Caliper, Micrometer

 Calibration

• Calibration is the process of determining and

adjusting an instruments accuracy to make
sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing
specifications.
 Interchangeability
• A part which can be substituted for the
component manufactured to the small shape and
dimensions is known a interchangeable part.

• The operation of substituting the part for similar

manufactured components of the shape and
dimensions is known as interchangeability.
 Sensor
Need for Sensor
• Sensors are pervasive or spread throughout. They are
embedded in our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants and
countless other applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no
automation !!
Imagine having to manually fill Soda bottles or car
assembly.
 Sensor
Characteristics of different types of sensors
a) Active and Passive: Does sensor draw energy
from the signal ?

b) Digital and Analog: Is the signal discrete or

continuous?

c) Null and deflection methods

d) Input – Output configuration

 Sensor
Active and Passive sensor
• Active sensors: Require an external source of
power (excitation voltage) that provides the
majority of the output power of the signal
Ex: RTD, strain gauge

• Passive sensors: The output power is almost

entirely provided by the measured signal
without an excitation voltage
Ex: thermocouple, piezoelectric transducer.
 Sensor
Analog and Digital sensors:
• Digital sensors: The signal produced or
reflected by the sensor is binary
• Analog sensors: The signal produced by the
sensor is continuous and proportional to the
measurand
 Sensor
Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal
or voltage which is generally proportional to the
quantity being measured. Physical quantities such
as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement,
Strain.
For example, the temperature of a liquid can be
measured using a thermometer or thermocouple
which continuously responds to temperature
change
 Sensor
Then circuits which measure analogue signals
usually have a slow response and/or low
accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily
converted into digital type signals for use in
micro-controller systems by the use of analogue-
to-digital converters, or ADC’s.
 Sensor
Digital Type
The output is either one or zero
 Sensor
Consider MQ4 sensor
 Sensor
• Physical variables of interest in the form of
continuous or step less variations
• Physical variables are represented by digital
quantities
 Sensor
Null and Deflection Methods
• Deflection: The signal produces some physical
(deflection) effect closely related to the
measured quantity and transduced to be
observable.
 Sensor
• Null: The signal produced by the sensor is
counteracted to minimize the deflection. That
opposing effect necessary to maintain a zero
deflection should be proportional to the signal
of the measurand
 Sensor
Input-Output Configuration

• Method minimizing error

• Method of high gain feedback:

• Method of calculated output corrections

• Method of signal filtering

• Method of opposing inputs

 Sensor

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