Objectives

o To understand some of
the definitions of quality.

o To understand the ideas

developed by the
leaders in quality
management.

o To understand some of Quality – You know it when you see it

the people issues in

quality management.

1
TRANSFORMATION OF QUALITY DEFINITION

Fitness for purpose

Meets the customer’s requirements

Delighting the customer

 The Various Definitions of Quality

o Quality is important for at least two reasons

o It effects all the other dimensions of performance.
o It contributes to increased profitability.

o There are five basic approaches to defining quality

o Manufacturing based Error free and to specification .
o User-based Products which are fit for purpose.
o Product-based Possession of desirable attributes.
o Value-based Related to the value of the product.
o Transcendent Synonymous with innate excellence

o Quality could be defined as “consistent conformance to customers’

expectations”.
o Quality can only be designed and then built in. This requires the
commitment of operational staff, which requires the commitment of
all management.
3
 Quality Characteristics of Goods and Services

o Functionality Does the job for which it is intended.

o Durability Useful life of the product.

o Recovery Ease and efficiency of correction and

resolution.

o Appearance Aesthetic appeal, look, feel, sound and

smell.

o Contact Appropriate person to person contacts and

interactions.

o Reliability Consistent performance over time

4
 Quality Related Costs

o Quality Related Costs

o INTERNAL – wasted time – rework – scrap – repair – bad feelings
o EXTERNAL – Customer complaints – claims – lost orders – lost
goodwill

o Appraisal
o Inspection – measurement – testing - checking

o Prevention
o Training – Process control – systems / process design – product
design – problem solving

5
 The traditional cost of quality model

Total
cost
Costs

Cost of quality Cost of prevention

provision and appraisal

Optimum Cost of errors Cost of internal and

amount of external failure
quality effort
Quality effort
 Increasing the effort spent on prevention of
errors brings a more than equivalent reduction in
other cost categories

Total cost of quality

Appraisal
Costs of quality

Internal failure

Appraisal

Prevention

Time
 The Leaders (The Gurus)

W Edwards Deming Problem solving, management issues,

14 points.

Joseph Juran Quality must be planned and be an

integral part of management control.

Armand Feigenbaum Originator of Total Quality Control

Kaoru Ishikawa Simplification and spread of statistical

tools.

Shigeo Shingo Minimum Prototyping, SMED, TPS

Taiichi Ohno Vice President Toyota, TPS.

6
 Deming - 14 Points

“Improvement of quality transfers waste

of man hours and of machine time into
1. Create constancy of purpose. the manufacture of good product and
2. Adopt a new philosophy. better service. The result is a chain reaction
3. Cease dependence on inspection. - lower costs, better competitive position,
4. End awarding business on price. happier people at work, jobs and more jobs.”
5. Improve constantly. Deming Out of the Crisis
6. Institute training.
7. Institute leadership.
8. Drive out fear.
9. Break down barriers between departments. The PDCA Cycle
10. Eliminate slogans and numerical targets.
P
11. Eliminate quotas, work standards and MbO.
12. Remove barriers that rob people of their A D
right to pride of workmanship.
13. Institute an education and self improvement C
program.
14. Put everyone in the company to work to The basis for
continuous
accomplish the transformation.
improvement

8
 Juran - Quality Planning Road Map

1. Identify who the customers are.

2. Determine customers’ needs.
3. Translate those needs into our language.
4. Develop a product that responds to those needs.
5. Optimise those products so that they meet our needs as well as
customer needs.
6. Develop a process which is able to produce the product.
7. Optimise the process.
8. Prove that the process can produce the product under operating
conditions.
9. Transfer the process to operations.

9
 Feigenbaum - Total Quality Control

is a company wide process.

is what the customer says it is.
and cost are a sum not a difference.
requires individual and team zealotry.
QUALITY is a way of managing.
and innovation are mutually dependent.
is an ethic.
requires continual improvement.
is the most cost effective and least capital
intensive route to productivity.
is implemented with a total system
connected to customers and suppliers

10
 So far then, it appears to be better ............

o To produce with people than without.

o To use all of the person.

o To build slack into the system.

o To exert local control over work and for local workers to

exert it, in effect for control to move down.
o To remember that the person, is as critical as the
process, is as critical as the product.

11
 Kaoru Ishikawa - The 7 Tools of Quality - Quality Circles

Cause and Effect

Pareto

Pareto Charts
Cause and Effect Diagrams
Flow charts
Flow Charts
Check sheets
Check Sheets
Scatter Diagrams X X
Scatter diagrams X X
X

Histograms X X X
X X X
X X
X X X X
X X X
X X

Shewart’s Control Charts

(Statistical Process Control) Histograms
6σ
SPC
12
 Shigeo Shingo & Taiichi Ohno

The Seven Tools of Quality Management

Quality Circles

The Toyota Production System

Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED)

Poke Yoke (error proofing)

Quality Function Deployment

13
 Customer - Supplier Chains

Customers can be free or have a degree of constraint placed upon them

C ustomer

S upplier

C C ustomer

S
ustomer
S upplier
upplier
C ustomer

S upplier

C ustomer

Oakland JS., 1994. Total Quality Management,

Butterworth and Heinemann.
S upplier

14
 Customers

o Who are my immediate customers?

o What are their true requirements?

o How do or can I find out what their requirements are?

o How can I measure my ability to meet their

requirements?

o Do I have the necessary capability to meet the

requirements? (If not what must change?)

o Do I continually meet the requirements?

(If not what prevents this?)

15 o How do I monitor changes in requirements?

 Suppliers

o Who are my immediate suppliers?

o What are my true requirements?

o How do I communicate my requirements?

o Can my suppliers measure and meet my requirements?

o How do I inform them of changes in my requirements?

16
 Expectations

1. What does my customer expect of me ?

2. What do I expect from my customer ?
3. What do I think my customer expects of me ?
4. What does my customer think my expectations are ?
2

4
Machin J L J., 1980. Expectations Approach.
Improving Managerial Communication and Performance.
McGraw Hill.
4
1 2
4
2
One supplier 3
Three customers
Twelve expectations 3
3
Wherever possible, make expectations explicit. 1
1

17
 Quality Control and Quality assurance

o Quality Control: The use of techniques

and activities that compare actual
quality performance with goals and
define appropriate action in response to
a shortfall in quality
o Quality Assurance: All the planned and
systematic activities implemented
within the quality systems to provide
adequate confidence that the
requirements for quality will be met
 Total Quality Management (TQM)

o TQM is an integrated organizational approach in delighting customers

(both internal and external) by meeting their expectations on a
continuous basis through everyone involved with the organization
working on continuous improvement in all products, services, and
processes along with proper problem-solving methodology.
o TQM ensures maximum effectiveness and efficiency within a
business and secure leadership by putting in place processes and
systems which will promote excellence. It ensures that every aspect
of the business is aligned to the customer needs and advancement of
business goals without duplication or waste of efforts.
 Evolution of TQM

Whole operation involved

Quality strategy
Teamwork Total Quality
Staff empowerment Management
Involves customers and suppliers Quality assurance
Quality
Qualitycontrol
Control
Inspection
Quality systems
Quality costing
Problem solving
Quality planning

Statistical methods
Process performance
Quality standards

Error detection
Rectification
 Fundamentals of TQM

o Putting the customer first

o Management by facts not by opinions, views
and notions
o Principle of PDCA Cycle
o Focus on Prevention: Institute methods to
prevent recurrence of problem
o Principle of Employees Involvement
o Principle of cross-functional management: It
reduces design time, improve quality and build
a sense of mission among company employees
 Total Quality Management Model

Teams

Culture Communication
Process

Customer
Supplier

Systems Tools

Commitment
Oakland JS., 1994. Total Quality Management,
Butterworth and Heinemann.

18
 The Standards. Quality as Conformance – Documented Systems

o A fully documented quality system will

ensure that two major requirements are
Write down what you do met:
o ORGANISATION'S REQUIREMENTS
Justify what you do Internal and external quality at optimal
cost
Do what is written Correctiveo CUSTOMER'S REQUIREMENTS For
loop confidence in the ability of the supplier to
deliver consistently desired product or
Record what you did
service
o EFFICIENT UTILISATION of
Review what you did RESOURCES
• Material
Revise what you will do • Technology
• People

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 Documented Systems -

o A fully documented quality system will ensure that two major

requirements are met:

o CUSTOMER'S REQUIREMENTS For confidence in the ability of

the supplier to deliver consistently desired product or service

o ORGANISATION'S REQUIREMENTS Internal and external quality

at optimal cost

o EFFICIENT UTILISATION of RESOURCES

o Material
o Technology
o Human

In other words – we are setting conformance standards

against which we can be measured and can measure others
20
 The Steps to Implementing TQM

TQM Implementation

Training for Quality

Teamwork for Quality

Control for Quality

Capability for Quality

System for Quality

Design for Quality

Planning for Quality

Measurement of Quality

Cost of Quality

Policy on Quality

Commitment to Quality

Understanding of Quality
23
 Barriers to TQM

 Lack of top management commitment

 Unrealistic expectations about timeframe and cost of
TQM implementation
 Over or under reliance on statistical methods
 Failure to develop and sustain a quality-oriented
culture
 Lack of integration into business planning
 Why use Statistical Process Control (SPC)
o SPC is based on the idea that measuring process variability will indicate if
a process is in control or not.
o Processes can be brought into control and then improved by
progressively reducing process variability. The result is that individuals
and organizations learn about the process at an increasingly detailed
level.
o This learning means that process knowledge is continually improved.
o An increased knowledge about process capability is especially difficult for
competitors to copy. It only comes from the time and the effort invested in
understanding the process. It is knowledge that cannot be bought off the
shelf and can lead to market advantage.
 Why use Statistical Process Control (SPC)
o Gives live information
o Is easy to draw
o Can be operator used
o Identifies:-Special causes or Random causes
o Shows when to:-~Shut a process down. Adjust a process. Leave a
process alone.
o Indicates a predictable process, so both supplier and customer can
rely on consistent standards and stable costs
o Reduces scrap and therefore reduces rework and cost.
o Encourages employee involvement
o Provides a common language for communicating information on
process conditions and capability along the customer supply chain
and the product value chain
o Increases productivity by improving conformance
 Measuring the process means

o To know when causes are random

o It can show the accumulation of random
causes and their effect
o It can recognise when a process moves
away from random to assignable
Random and Assignable Causes

• Exactly stable processes never

exist (Deming –Out of the Crisis
1982)

• Variation is the cause of dispersion

about the mean
 Assignable Variation

o Differences between:
o Equipment (one machine and another)
o Operator skills
o Information (source & interpretation)
o Materials
 Random Variations

o Draughts
o Atmospheric temperature
o Atmospheric pressure
o Passing traffic
o Equipment vibration
o Electrical fluctuations
o Humidity fluctuations
o Operator performance
 Run: Mean and Range Charts
o A run chart records individual samples.
o A mean chart records the average of a sample set.
o A range chart records the difference between the
maximum and the minimum (measurement e.g. weight
volume etc)of a sample set.

DATA COLLECTION:-
CHARACTERISTIC
SAMPLE SIZE
FREQUENCY
SPECIFICATION
 Central Limit Theorem

1. If the population of individuals is normally

distributed, the samples that are selected from the
population will also be normally distributed,
regardless of sample size.

2. If the population is not normally distributed then

the mean of the samples ( x ) drawn from the
population will be normally distributed.
 SPC Technique

o Define data collection parameters

o Collect data
o Find the mean for each sample set
o Find the range for each sample set
o Find the overall mean of the sample sets
o Find the mean of the ranges
o Plot the results
o Plot upper action line UAL
o Plot upper warning line UWL
o Plot lower warning line LWL
o Plot lower action line LAL
 Calculations of Limits

o UCLM= X +(A2R)
o UWL= X + (2/3A2R)
o LWL= X -(2/3A2R)
o LCLM= X -(A2R)Charts
o Range is calculated as UCLR and is RD4
 Interpretation of Cycles: A cycle is a repeated
pattern of change over equal intervals of time.

Mean Chart: Range Chart:

o Temperature – o Scheduled
Humidity maintenance
o Operator fatigue o Operator fatigue
o Regular rotation o Tool wear and
of machine or replacement
operator
 Interpretation Trends: A trend is 7 or more
consecutive intervals that are continually
increasing or decreasing
Mean Chart: Range Chart:
o Deterioration in o Change in
machine operator skill
o Operator fatigue o Operator fatigue
o Tool wear o Tool wear
o Environmental o Change in
conditions material
 Interpretation Hugging (Center) Line

For a distribution to be considered random about 2/3rds

of the points should be within the middle third of the
region. i.e. plus or minus one standard deviation
Mean Chart:
o Improvement in process
o Data edited!
Range Chart:
o Samples from different processes
o Improvement since control limits were last calculated
 Interpretation Hugging Control Limits

Mean Chart: Range Chart:

o Over control o Materials of
o Large differences different quality
in material quality o Different workers
o Two or more using the same
processes chart
o Different
processes being
recorded
Interpretation: 7 Or More Consecutive Points On One Side Of
The Center Line:

Mean Chart: Range Chart:

o Change in o Faulty measuring
material equipment
o Change in method o Change in
o Change in material –supplier
operator –operator
o Faulty measuring o Inadequate
equipment Maintenance