BUILDING MATERIALS &

CONSTRUCTION

UNIT -1
LECTURE - 4: STONES
 In this lecture we shall learn about
 The geological cycle – rock formation
 Classification of rocks
STONE AS BUILDING MATERIAL
 In some places like hilly areas, stone is a cheaper
option
 Stones have been used since ancient times as building
material.
 Old roads were paved with stone.
 Old monuments such as Taj mahal and many temples
and palaces were made from stones.
 Stones are more permanent than most building
materials.
 Stone is good choice for foundations likely to be
flooded.
 Submerged bricks may breakdown but submerged
stones remain stable.
 Today stones form an important source of aggregates
and are also used in ornamental work.
INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earth is divided into

three main layers:
 Crust

 Mantle

 Core
 Crust
 Continental crust (25-40 km )
 Oceanic crust (~6 km)

 Mantle
 Upper mantle (650 km)
 Lower mantle (2235 km)

 Core
 Outer core: liquid (2270 km)
 Inner core: solid (1216 km)
THE CRUST
 The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and
is composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium
(Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the
crust is rocky and brittle , so it can fracture in earthquakes
.

 The shell of the earth, the crust, can be said to have two
different thicknesses.

 Under the oceans, it is relatively thin. It varies in thickness

from 5 to 8 km. Under the land masses, it is relatively
thick. The thickness of the continental crust varies from 10
to 65 km.

 The eggshell analogy for the crust is not an exaggeration. It

is paper thin compared with the radius of the earth which
is approximately 6400 km.
ROCKS -DEFINITION
 It is the portion of the earth’s crust having no definite
shape and structure
 Geologist define rock as aggregates or mass composed of
one or more minerals.

 Monomineralic Rocks: having only one mineral

 Polymineralic Rocks: having several minerals

STONES -DEFINITION
 a natural, hard substance formed from minerals
and earth material which are present in rocks.
 The stone is always obtained from rocks.
MINERALS

 Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic

substances having definite chemical composition
and molecular structure.

 As the basic constituent of rock, minerals control

much of rock behavior. Some minerals are very
strong and resistant to deterioration and produce
rock with similar properties, while others are
much softer and produce weaker rock.
THE GEOLOGICAL CYCLE: ROCK FORMATION

 Geological cycle includes many processes acting

simultaneously.
 The most important of these begin with
 molten magma from within the earth forming into
rock,
 then continue with rocks being broken down into soil,
 and that soil being converted back into rock.
 GEOLOGICAL CYLCE

 The geologic cycle. All rocks begin as igneous, but later can
be transformed via weathering into sedimentary rocks, or
via heat and pressure, into metamorphic rocks.
http://www.thaigem.com/gemopedia/gemstone-formation.asp
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

 Geological Classification
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic

 Physical Classification
 Stratified
 Unstratified
 Foliated

 Chemical Classification
 Silicious
 Argillaceous
 Calcareous
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Stratified Rocks:
These rocks possess planes of stratification or cleavage. They can
be easily split up along these planes.

 Unstratified Rocks:
The structure of these rocks may be crystalline granular or
compact granular.

 Foliated Rocks:
These rocks have a tendency to be split up in a definite direction
only.
EXAMPLES

Stratified

Foliated

Unstratified
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
 Silicious
 Silica predomiates
 Hard and durable
 Eg. Granites, Quartzites, etc.

 Argillaceous
 Clay predomiates
 Dense, compact and soft
 Eg. Slates, Laterites, etc.

 Calcareous
 Calcium Carbonate predomiates
 Durability depends upon surrounding atmosphere
 Eg. Limestone, Marble, etc.
GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
IGNEOUS ROCKS
 They are formed by cooling and crystallization of
 magma (below the Earth’s surface) or
 Lava (above the Earth’s surface)

volcano
Magma
cools and
solidifies
forming
igneous
rocks

magma
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 There are two types of Igneous rocks
 Intrusive (also called plutonic rocks): form below
the ground surface from magma coming up from the
mantle into the crust, where they cool slowly,
 Extrusive (also called volcanic rocks) arrive at
the ground surface in a molten state, such as through
volcanic eruption. This type of igneous rock cool very
rapidly.
 Hypabyssal rocks are formed when consolidation of
magma takes place very close to the earth’s surface in
the form of smaller sheet like bodies (known as sills
and dikes) that fill cracks inside other rocks.
EXAMPLES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Granite is an example of an
Intrusive Igneous Rock
 It forms under the Earths surface
from the cooling of magma leaking
up from the mantle of Earth
 Intrusive igneous rocks have
noticeably large crystals and are
usually rough to the touch unless
they are polished
 Examples: Kitchen Counters
 The Continental Crust of the
Earth is primarily made of
Granite
OTHER EXAMPLES OF INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
ROCKS:

Gabbro Andesite Diorite

EXAMPLES OF EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS
ROCKS
 Basalt is an example
of an Extrusive
Igneous Rock
 The Oceanic Crust is
made primarily of
Basalt
 Basalt is formed from
lava on the crust of
the Earth.
 Because it is formed
on the surface, the
crystals are very fine-
grained
OTHER EXAMPLES OF EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

Obsidian Scoria

Rhyolite
HYPABYSSAL IGNEOUS ROCK

Lamprophyre Rock
DIKE
 A dike is vertical wall-like igneous body that cuts the
bedding of the rock.
 It forms where magma squeezes into fractures in the
surrounding rock and cools.
 The thickness of the dike may vary from a few
centimeters to a hundred meter or more.

Pegmatite dike cross-cutting basement gneisses

SILL
 A sill is a tabular intrusive layer of rock.
 The sills are parallel to the layered rock beds, whereas the
dikes are perpendicular to them.
 Rising magma follows the path of least resistance. If the
magma can no longer rise, then the path of least
resistance may take it laterally in between the rock layers.
 varies in thickness from a few centimeter to several
hundred meters.

The darker layered diorite sill

in the Limestone flanks of
Mount Gould in Glacier
National Park in Montana

(some 1300 million years old.)

Dolerite sill cutting across sandstone
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Rocks produced by the settling/deposition, compaction

and cementation of sediments

Limestone Sandstone Gritstone

Conglomerate Shale
Sedimentary rocks are rocks
formed when particles of
sediment build up and are
“cemented together” by
the effect of pressure and
minerals.

Fragments washed to the sea

Rocks are broken

up by weathering
Sea
Sedimentary
rocks
 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Clastic(physical weathering)
 Chemical
 Organic
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Clastic Sedimentary
Rocks are formed from
mechanical weathering
debris
 Mechanical weathering
takes place when rocks Breccia Conglomerate
are broken down
without any change in
the chemical nature of
the rocks
 breccia, conglomerate,
sandstone and shale are
some examples
Sandstone Shale
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 Chemical
Sedimentary Rocks
form when dissolved
materials precipitate
from solution
 Example : Halite that Halite
forms from dried up
saltwater lakes
 Rock salt (Halite) and
some limestone are
examples of Chemical
Sed. Rocks
Limestone
ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Organic Sedimentary
Rocks form from the
dead plants and animals
and their debris.
 Coal and fossiliferous
limestone are examples
of organic sed. rock Fossiliferous Limestone
 An example of
fossiliferous limestone
has sea shells in it
 Organic material comes
from anything living or
has lived before

Coal
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Metamorphic rocks are formed by the effect of heat,
pressure and chemical process on existing rocks.

 Exposure to extreme conditions alters the minerals,

texture and chemical composition of the rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the effect of heat
and pressure on existing rocks.

Pressure from surface

rocks

metamorphic
rock
forming
here

Heat from magma

METAMORPHIC ROCKS CAN FORM
FROM IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY OR OTHER METAMORPHIC
ROCKS.
EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY CAUSE
HEAT AND PRESSURE TO ACT ON ROCKS.
SOMETIMES TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ARE
GREAT ENOUGH TO MELT ROCK, FORMING MAGMA.
SOMETIMES PRESSURE FLATTENS MINERAL GRAINS IN
ROCKS WITHOUT MELTING THEM.
AS PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE CONTINUE TO INCREASE
OVER TIME, ONE TYPE OF ROCK CAN CHANGE INTO SEVERAL
DIFFERENT METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Thereare two basic types of
metamorphic rocks based on their
texture:
 Non-foliated
 Foliated
FOLIATED TEXTURE:

Mineral grains flatten and line up in parallel

layers or bands.
NONFOLIATED TEXTURE:

mineral grains grow and rearrange but do not form

layers.
FOLIATED ROCKS
 Original Rock: shale (sedimentary)
 Metamorphic Rock: slate
FOLIATED ROCK
 Original Rock: granite (igneous)
 Metamorphic Rock: gneiss
 NONFOLIATED ROCK
 Original Rock: limestone (sedimentary)
 Metamorphic Rock: marble
 NONFOLIATED ROCK
 Original Rock: sandstone (sedimentary)
 Metamorphic Rock: quartzite (melted sand)
REFERENCE
 The following slides may be referred for further
understanding of concepts.
THE GEOLOGICAL CYCLE
 EXPLANATION OF GEOLOGICAL CYCLE
 Let's start with the red area at the bottom of the
diagram: magma, molten rock.
 When magma rises through cracks and cools slowly
underground, it forms igneous rocks composed of
minerals with fairly large crystal sizes, these are
known as intrusive igneous rocks.
 When the magma erupts onto the surface, as through
a volcano, it is termed lava, and depending on the
rate of cooling, the extrusive igneous rocks which
form have medium to very small mineral crystals.
 Some lava cools so rapidly that it forms an
amorphous material without a crystalline structure.
Granite and basalt are examples of larger and
smaller grained igneous rocks, respectively, and
obsidian (volcanic glass) is amorphous.
http://www.bwsmigel.info/Lesson10/DE.Gem.Formation.html
EXPLANATION OF GEOLOGICAL CYCLE –
CONTD…
 Once the igneous rock is on the surface, the forces of erosion and
weathering produce smaller particles which accumulate on the
surface, and/or are moved by wind and water. As time proceeds,
layers of these sediments build up (on land or under water). The
pressure from upper layers causes compaction in the lower layers
along with various chemical and physical changes (lithification),
which lead to the creation of sedimentary rock.
 Evaporation is an alternate factor which also produces
sedimentary rocks, as when dripping mineral-laden waters leave
behind stalactites or stalagmites. Likewise, surface or
subterranean waters carrying dissolved minerals may evaporate
or precipitate those minerals within the cracks in other rocks, or
between rock layers. Sandstone and limestone are familiar
sedimentary rocks formed by lithification. Opal and turquoise
illustrate the evaporative mode of formation.
EXPLANATION OF GEOLOGICAL CYCLE –
CONTD…
 The presence of intrusive magma in a local region (contact
metamorphism), or of tectonic plate interactions on a larger scale
(regional metamorphism) puts the igneous and sedimentary rocks
and minerals under heat and/or pressure which may cause
changes in their chemistry and crystal structure. The result is the
creation of metamorphic rocks. Thus is limestone turned into
marble, sandstone into quartzite, and serpentine into nephrite
jade.
 As with most cycles in Nature there are sub-cycles and cross
interactions. So, for example, sedimentary rocks which are
subducted through tectonic action may melt and form magma
which produces igneous rocks. Or metamorphic rocks, which have
been uplifted and exposed at the surface, will erode to form
sedimentary deposits.
GRANITE FLAGSTONE QUARTZITE

LATERITE MARBLE SLATE

GRANITE
o Classification: Igneous Rock
o Granite is strong and durable which makes it lasting building
material for construction. Being more resistant to wear and
tear as well as weathering
o Highly resistance to natural forces. Granite is most suitable and
everlasting stone. Weight is 2600 to 2700kg/cubic meters.
Compressive strength varies from 770 to 1300kg/cm2
o Being harder, granite requires more processing compared to
other stones. Ageless - always contemporary.
o Granite comes from igneous rocks, formed slowly, as it cooled
deep underground.
o Provides a heavy crystalline and granular appearance with
mineral grains. It is very hard material and easier to maintain
than marble.
o Yet, it is still porous and will stain. There are different types of
granite depending on the percentage mix of quartz, mica and
feldspar.
o Black granite is known as an Anorthosite.
MARBLE…
 Classification: Metamorphic rock
 Qualities of a stone:
 Translucent. It can reflect 80-95 % visual of the objects.
 It is also hard compared to other building materials other than
granite.
 It is soluble. Its residue is very negligible
 It has capacity to resist stress.
 Its compressive strength i2 720kq/cm2
 Marbles show variety of textures on account of existing minerals &
re-crystallization patterns.
 Hardness rates from 2.5 to 5 on the MOH Scale.
 Texture depends upon form, size, and uniformity of grain
arrangements.
 Uses:
 Flooring, facing wall work, columns, steps, ornamentational works
etc.
 Its can be sawn and curved easily and
 Can take nice polish.
SLATE…
o Classification : Metamorphic rock
o Qualities of a stone:
o Slate is made of fine clay sediment It can be
defined as a fine grain rock derived from clays
possessing a cleavage that permits it to be split into
thin sheets. A fine grained metamorphic stone that
formed from clay, sedimentary rock shale, and
sometimes quartz. Very thin and can break easily.
Usually black, grey, or green.
o Color & patterns - Grayish Black, Multicolor,
Brown, Red etc.
o Dazzling varieties-golden, copper, silver shine,
green mica, speckle, deoli, mahu, silver grey.
o Non absorbent. Compressive strength is from 770
to 2110kq/cm
o Uses:
o Roofing work, sills, damp-proof course etc.
QUARTZITE…
 Classification : Metamorphic rock
 Qualities of a Stone:
 Hard, brittle, crystalline and compact. Difficult to work and
dress
 Quartzite can be easily distinguished from sandstone by the fact
that it fractures across its constituent grains of sand, while
sandstone fractures along the line of the cementing
 Most often it is white, light grey, yellowish, or light brown, but
is sometimes coloured blue, green, purple, or black by included
minerals.
 It results from the metamorphism of pure quartz sandstone.
 Much harder than sandstone. When broken, will break across
the grains
 Sandstone will shatter into many individual grains of sand
while quartzite will break across the grains.
 Uses: retaining walls, metal roads, concrete aggregate pitching,
rubble masonry, facing of building etc.
STONE UNITS- khandki, Rubble, Black stones, Stone Metal,
Flag stones

Thin slabs typically used for paving floors.

Flagstone (flag) is a generic flat stone, usually used for paving

slabs or walkways, patios, fences and roofing. It may be used for
memorials, headstones, facades and other constructions..
Flagstone is a sedimentary rock that is split into layers along
bedding planes.
Flagstone is usually a form of a sandstone composed of feldspar
and quartz and its grain size (0.16 mm – 2 mm in diameter). The
material that binds flagstone is usually composed of silica, calcite,
or iron oxide.
QUARRYING OF BUILDING STONES

oStone quarrying:

oThe process of taking out stones from natural rock beds is known
as the quarrying.
oThe term quarry is used to indicate the exposed surface of natural
rocks.
oThe stones, thus obtained, are used for various eng purposes.
oThe difference between a mine and a quarry should be noted .
oIn case of a mine the operations are carried out under the ground
at great depth.
o Quarrying with hand tools- following are the three different ways
of doing quarrying by hand tools
oDigging or excavating.
oHeating.
oWedging.
 QUARRING WITH CHANNELING MACHINE- IN THIS
METHOD THE CHANNELING MACHINE DRIVEN BY STEAM,
COMPRESSED AIR OR ELECTRICITY ARE USED TO MAKE
VERTICAL OR OBLIQUE GROOVES OR CHANELS ON THE
ROCK MASS.

 QUARRYING BY BLASTING- IN THIS METHOD THE

EXPLOSIVES ARE USED TO CONVERT ROCKS INTO SMALL
PIECES OF STONES
PROPERTIES OF STONES
 The properties of stones: The proprieties of stones
which are important for stone masonry are
strength and durability. Economy and
appearance are additional requirements. The
main considerations for durability are the lasting
qualities of the stone itself and the locality where
it is to be used. Porous stones are unsuitable for
areas prone to heavy rainfall and frost. Stones,
e.g. marbles having low porosity and low
coefficients of expansion and contraction should
be used in areas subjected to large variations in
rainfall and temperatures. Generally lime and
cement mortars are used for stone masonry.
Their function is to provide a workable matrix
and ultimately a hard building material, which
renders masonry into a monolithic unit.
DRESSING OF STONE
 Cutting and dressing of stones: Stones found in nature, have
to be quarried from their thick beds. After quarrying large
pieces of stones, it is essential to break them into smaller
sizes so that they can be used in a building. They are also
dressed into suitable shapes and polished to give a smooth
surface, if desired. Various types of finishes and the methods
of dressing and cutting the stones to get the desired surfaces
are described below:
 1. Scrabbling: Irregular edges of the stones are broken off
and the stone is shaped somewhat.
 2. Hammer dressed: Large raised portions of the stones are
cut and the stone is made somewhat flat but rough due to
hammer marks.
 3. Boasted or droved finish: The stone is cut to a little level
face and is finished by means of a boaster.
 4. Tooled finish: In this case the chisel marks are
continuous and parallel throughout the width of stone.
 5. Furrowed finish: In this case about 1 cm vertical or
horizontal grooves are sunk with a chisel having its end
shaped as a hollow semi-circle.
 6. Reticulated finish: In this type of work, irregular shaped
sinking is made within the center portion of the stone having
a 2 cm wide margin on its sides. 48
 7. Vermiculated finish: The sinking is of the reticulated type
except that they are more curved and give a worm eaten
type of appearance.
 8. Combed or dragged finish: This type of finish is done on
soft stones. A comb is driven over the surface of this stone to
remove all elevating portions.
 9. Punched finish: Depressions are formed on the rough
surface with a punch.
 10.Picked finish: This type of finish is obtained by dressing
stones with a point and the depressions are smaller than the
above type.
 11.Chisel drafted margins: They give a better appearance
and help in getting uniform joints. 12.Moulded finish:
Mouldings of various types can be worked on the stones to
improve their appearance.
 13.Rubbed finish: The surfaces of the stones are rubbed get
a smoother surface finish.
 14.Polished finish: Stones which can take polish, e.g.,
granites, marbles, lime-stones are first rubbed to a smooth
surface and then polished by using rubber and pad, sand
and water, pumice, and putty powder. 15.Sand Blasting:
This is done to imprint letterings and designs on the
surface of granites
TYPES OF STONE MASONRY
 Types of stone masonry: Masonry can be classified
according to the thickness of joints, continuity of courses
and finish of face. Broadly speaking there are two types of
stone masonry, namely: 1. Rubble masonry: This consists of
blocks of stones either undressed or roughly dressed and
having wider joints.
 a. Random rubble:
i. Uncoursed
ii. Coursed
 b. Squared rubble
i. Uncoursed
ii. Coursed iii. Built to regular courses
PROPERTIES OF STONE:
 General principles to be followed in the construction of
stone masonry:
 1. The stone used shall be hard, durable and tough. All
stones should be laid on its natural bed.
 2. The pressure acting on the stones should not act parallel
to the bedding planes. This will try to split the stones.
Sometimes stones used in corbels are laid with pressure
acting parallel to bedding planes.
 3. The bond stones and headers should not be of dumb-bell
shape.
 4. Large flat stones should be laid under the ends of
girders, roof trusses, etc.
 5. In all slopping retaining walls, the beds of the stones
and the plan of the courses should be at right angles to the
slope.
 6. All laid fine dressed stone work should be protected
against damage during further construction by means of
wooden boxes.
 7. Jambs for door and window openings should be made of
quoins which are equal in height to the course. They should
be in breadth equal to at least 1½ times the height of the
course and their length should be at least twice the height.
 8. All the surfaces should be kept wet while the work is in
progress and also till the mortar has set.
 9. Double scaffolding will be used wherever it is difficult to
fit in the stones later on.
 10.All the portions of the masonry should be raised
uniformly. Wherever this is not possible, the stone work
built earlier should be raked (stepped) so that the new
work can be bonded well with the old.
 11.Sufficient through stones should be used and they
should form ¼th of the area in elevation.
 12. The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed
with mortar and chips, if necessary, to avoid any hollows or
very thick mortar joints.
 13.Vertical faces of the masonry walls should be
checked with a plumb rule and the battered faces
should be tested with wooden template
corresponding to the batter and a plumb rule to
ensure a constant batter.
 14.The stones used in the masonry should be
wetted before use to avoid moisture being sucked
from the mortar.
 15.Masonry should not be allowed to take
tension.