11.plastic Analysis

P lastic Analysis
Theory of Structures-II
Engr. Shahzad Saleem
Department of Civil Engineering
Plastic Analysis
“The plastic method of structural analysis is

concerned with determining the maximum loads
that a structure can sustain before collapse.”
The collapse load is known as failure load, the
ultimate load, and the limit load.
A number of comprehensive textbooks dealing
with plastic design are available.
2
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila
The plastic method is applicable to structures

constructed with an ideal elastic-plastic material
such as mild steel.
If a piece of mild steel is subjected to a tensile
force, it will begin to elongate. If tensile force is
increased at a constant rate the amount of
elongation will increase constantly within certain
limits.
In other words, elongation will double when the
stress goes from 6000 to 12,000 psi. 3
When the tensile stress reaches a value roughly

equal to one-half of the ultimate tensile strength,
the elongation will begin to increase at a greater
rate without a corresponding increase in the stress.
The largest stress for which Hook’s law applies or
the highest point on the straight-line portion of the
stress-strain diagram is the “proportional limit”.
The largest stress that a material can withstand
without being permanently deformed is called the
“elastic limit”. 4
This value is seldom actually measured and for

most engineering materials including structural
steel is synonymous with the proportional limit.
For this reason the term “proportional elastic
limit” is sometimes used.
The stress at which there is a decided increase in
the elongation or strain without a corresponding
increase in stress is said to be the “yield point”.
It is the first point on the stress-strain diagram
where a tangent to the curve is horizontal.
5
The strain that occurs before the yield point is

referred to as “elastic strain”.
The strain that occurs after the yield point, with no
increase in stress is referred to as the “plastic
strain”.
The plastic strain usually varies from 10 to 15
times the elastic strains.
Yielding of steel without stress increase may be
thought to be a severe disadvantage.
6
But in actuality, it is a very useful characteristic. It

has often performed the wonderful service of
preventing failure due to omissions or mistakes on
the designer’s part.
If the stress at one point in a ductile steel structure
reach the yield point, that part of the structure will
yield locally without stress increase, thus
preventing premature failure.
This ductility allows the stresses in a steel
structures to be readjusted. 7
In other words, very high stresses caused by

fabrication, erection, or loading will tend to
equalize themselves.
It can be said that a steel structure has a reserve of
plastic strain that enables it to resist overloads and
sudden shocks.
After the plastic strain there is a range where
additional stress is necessary to produce additional
strain and this is called “strain hardening”.
8
This portion of the diagram is not too important to

today’s designer.
A familiar stress-strain diagram for mild structural
steel is shown in next slide.
Only the initial part of the curve is shown because
of the great deformations that occurs before
failure.
At failure in the mild steels the total strains are
from 150 to 200 times the elastic strains.
9
Stress-Strain Diagram
Elastic yielding (elastic range)
Plastic yielding (plastic range) Strain hardening
Upper yield
Stress Lower yield
 P
 f  
 A 
 L 
Strain    
 L  10
The curve will actually continue up to its

maximum stress value and then “tail off” before
failure.
A sharp reduction in the cross section of the
member takes place (called “necking”) followed
by the failure.
This stress-strain curve is of usual ductile
structural steel and is assumed to be same for
members in tension or compression.
11
Stress-Strain Diagram
plastic range
Stress
Strain
12
The shape of the diagram varies with the speed of

loading, the type of steel, and the temperature.
One such variation is shown in the figure by the
dotted line marked “upper yield”.
This shape stress-strain curve is the result when a
mild steel has the load applied rapidly whereas the
“lower yield” is the case for slow loading.
Plastic theory was introduced by J. A. Van den
Broek in 1939, which he called “Limit Design”.
13
In this theory, rather than basing designs on the

allowable-stress method, the problem is handled
by considering the greatest load that can be carried
by the structure acting as a unit.
The resulting designs are quite interesting to the
structural designer as they offer several
advantages.
These include the following:
1. Savings in cost of steel up to 10 – 15%.
14
2. More accurate estimate of the maximum load a

structure can support.
3. For some complicated structures it is easier to
apply as compared to elastic analysis.
4. Structures are often subjected to large stresses
that are difficult to predict such as those caused
by settlement, erection, etc., plastic design
provides plastic deformation for such situations.
15
The method has some following disadvantages:

1. Plastic design is of little value for the high-
strength brittle steel.
2. Plastic design today is not satisfactory for
situations in which fatigue stresses are a problem.
3. Columns designed by plastic theory provide little
savings.
4. Unstable plastic structures are more difficult to
detect than are unstable elastic structures.
16
Theory of Plastic Analysis
The basic theory is that the stress-distribution

changes after the stresses at certain points in a
structure reach the yield point.
Those parts of the structure that have been stressed
to the yield point cannot resist additional stresses.
These parts will yield the amount required to
permit the load or stresses to be transferred to
other parts of the structure. 17
The stress-strain diagram is assumed to have the

idealized shape shown.
The yield point and the proportional limit are
assumed to occur at the same point for this steel,
and the stress-strain diagram is assumed to be a
perfectly straight line in the plastic range.
Beyond the plastic range there is the range of
strain hardening.
18
Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram
Fy Plasticity
Stress
Strain
19
In this range steel members can withstand

additional stresses, but from practical point of
view the strains and deflections occurring are so
large that they cannot be considered.
The Plastic Hinge

As the bending moment is increased at a particular
section of a beam there will be a linear variation of
stress until the yield stress is reached in the
outermost fibers.
20
For a rectangular beam the illustration of stress

variation in the elastic range is shown in the figure
below. F y
Fy
The “yield moment” of a cross section is defined

as the moment that will just produce the yield
stress in the outermost fiber of the section.
21
If the moment is increased beyond the yield

moment, the outermost fibers will continue to
have the same stress but will yield, and the duty of
providing the necessary additional resisting
moment will fall on the fibers nearer to the neutral
axis.
This process will continue with more and more
parts of the beam cross section stressed to the
yield point until, finally, a fully “plastic
distribution” is approached.
22
Fy Fy Fy Fy
Fy Fy Fy Fy
Rectangular First yield Fully plastic
Beam X section
When the stress distribution has reached this stage,

a plastic hinge is said to have formed because no
additional moment can be resisted at the section.
23
Any additional moment applied at the section will

cause the beam to rotate with little increase in
stress.
The “plastic moment” is the moment that will
produce full plasticity in a member cross section
and create a plastic hinge.
The ratio of the plastic moment Mp to the yield
moment My is called the “shape factor”.
Mp
Shape Factor   
My 24
The shape factor equals 1.50 for rectangular

sections and varies from about 1.10 to 1.20 for
standard rolled beam sections.
Pu
Plastic hinge
Area of yielding
25
The Yield Moment

The yield moment My is equal to the yield stress
Fy times the elastic section modulus Z.
M y  Fy  Z
The elastic section modulus equals I/c or bd2/6 for

a rectangular section.
bd 2
M y  Fy
6
The same value can be obtained by considering the
resisting internal couple.
26
The resisting moment equals T or C times the

lever arm between them as follows:
Fy
1 d Fy bd
d C Fy b 
2 2 4
2
2
d d
3
d
1 d Fy bd
2 T Fy b 
2 2 4
Fy
b
 bd  2  Fy bd 2
M y   Fy  d  
 4  3  6
27
The Plastic Moment

The Plastic moment Mp is equal to the yield stress
Fy times the plastic section modulus S.
M p  Fy  S
The plastic section modulus equals bd2/4 for a

rectangular section.
bd 2
M p  Fy
4
The same value can be obtained by considering the
resisting internal couple.
28
Fy
d d
C  Fy b
2 2
d
d
2
d d
T  Fy b
2 2
Fy
b
 d d Fy bd 2
M p   Fy b  
 2 2 4
29
The shape factor for this rectangular beam section

is
bd 2
M p Fy S S
Shape Factor       4 2  1.5
M y Fy Z Z bd
6
At all stages of loading, the compression force C

induced by the applied moment must equal the
tension force T.
30
Or, the plastic neutral axis must be that axis which

equally divides the area into two separate parts,
i.e.
C = Compression Force (AC x Fy)
T = Tension Force (AT x Fy)
Force in Compression = Force in Tension
C=T
(AC x Fy) = (AT x Fy)
Area in compression = Area in Tension 31
In plastic analysis the neutral axis is the “equal

area axis”.
32
Example 1
Determine the position of the plastic neutral axis
y plastic, the plastic section Sxx, and the shape factor υ for the
welded section shown.
90 mm
10 mm
Zxx = 34.9 x 103 mm3

90 mm
15 mm 33
Solution:
AC1
90 mm
Fy
10 mm
C1
C2
AC2
Zxx = 34.9 x 103 mm3
90 mm
y plastic T ATotal =(AC1+AC2+AT)

AT
Fcompression = Ftension
C1 + C2 = T
Fy (AC1 xFy)+(AC2 xFy)=(AT xFy)
15 mm (AC1+AC2)=AT
(1) Position of plastic neutral axis ( y plastic )
A  90 10  90 15  2250 mm 2

A 2250
  1125 mm 2
2 2 34
Solution:
AC1
90 mm
Fy
10 mm
C1
C2
AC2
y plastic  75 mm
90 mm
T
AT
Fy
15 mm
For equal area axis:
1125
y plastic   75 mm
15
35
Solution:
AC1
90 mm
Fy
10 mm
C1
C2
AC2
y plastic  75 mm
90 mm
T
AT
Fy
15 mm
(2) Plastic section modulus (Sxx): (first moment of area about plastic neutral axis)
S XX  90 10 20  15 15 7.5  75 15 37.5  61.875 103 mm 3
36
Solution:
AC1
90 mm
Fy
10 mm
C1
C2
AC2
y plastic  75 mm
90 mm
T
AT
Fy
15 mm
S xx
(3) Shape factor (   )
Z xx
S XX  61.875 103 
  3 
 1.77
Z XX  34.9 10 
37
The Load Factor
We wish to ensure that the load to which a

structure is subjected is lower than the value which
would cause collapse by a fairly large margin; we
can define this margin using a load factor.
Suppose we have a structure subjected to a known
working load “P”. We can calculate that the onset
of yielding would be caused by a load “Py” and
complete collapse by a load “Pc”.
38
The load factor against collapse is:
PC

P
Safety factor against yielding is:

Py

P
39
The Collapse Mechanism

A statically determinate beam will fail if one
plastic hinge develops.
Consider the beam shown in figure.
P
Should the load be increased until a plastic hinge

is developed at the point of maximum moment, an
unstable structure will have been created.
40
Pu
Real hinge Real hinge

Plastic hinge
Any further increase in load will cause collapse.

The plastic theory is of little advantage for
statically determinate beams and frames but it may
be of decided advantage for statically
indeterminate beams and frames.
For a statically indeterminate structure to fail it is
necessary for more than one plastic hinge to form. 41
The number of plastic hinges required for failure

of SIS vary from structure to structure, but may
never be less than two.
The fixed-end beam of figure cannot fail unless
the three plastic hinges are developed.
P
Pu
Plastic Plastic
hinge hinge
Plastic hinge
42
When a plastic hinge is formed in a SIS, the load

can still be increased without causing failure if the
geometry of the structure permits.
The plastic hinge will act like a real hinge insofar
as loading increased is concerned.
43
As the load is increased there is a redistribution of

moment because the plastic hinge can resist no
more moment.
As more plastic hinges are formed in the structure,
there will be eventually a sufficient number of
them to cause collapse.
44
Actually some additional load can be carried after

this time before collapse occurs as the stresses go
into the strain hardening range, but the deflections
that would occur are too large to be permissible.
The propped beam of figure is an example of
structure that will fail after two plastic hinges
develop. P
In this beam the largest elastic moment by the load

is at the fixed end.
45
As the magnitude of the load is increased, a plastic

hinge will form at that point.
The load may be further increased until the
moment at some other point (underneath the point
load) reaches the plastic moment.
Pu
Plastic Real hinge

hinge
Plastic hinge
Additional load will cause the beam to collapse.

46
The arrangement of plastic hinges and perhaps real

hinges that permit collapse in a structure is called
the mechanism.
“When enough plastic hinges have formed in a
structure to develop its full plastic load carrying
capacity, then portions of the structure between
hinges may displace without any further increase
of load i.e., the portions between hinges behave as
a mechanism.
47
Under these conditions the shape of the deformed

body may be characterized as a straight line
between any pair of hinges, known as Collapse
Mechanism.”
48
Partial Collapse
It is possible for part of a structure to collapse
whilst the rest remaining stable.
In this instance full collapse does not occur and
the number of hinges required to cause partial
collapse is less than (ID+1) ignoring horizontal
forces.
ID  2m  r   2n  2  4  5  2  5  3

49
50
51
52
53
For any given design load applied to a redundant

structure, more than one collapse mechanism may
be possible.
The correct mechanism is the one which requires
the least amount of “work done” for it’s inception.
Conditions for Full Collapse

There are three conditions which must be satisfied
to ensure full collapse of a structure and the
identification of the true collapse load, they are:
54
1. the mechanism condition in which there must be sufficient plastic

hinges to develop a mechanism, (number of plastic hinges ≥
[ID+1]),
2. the equilibrium condition in which the bending moments for any
collapse mechanism must be in equilibrium with the applied
collapse load,
3. the yield condition in which the magnitude of the bending
moment anywhere on the structure cannot exceed the plastic
moment of resistance of the member in which it occurs.
Provided that these three conditions can be

satisfied then the true collapse load can be
identified. 55
If only the mechanism and equilibrium conditions

are satisfied then an Upper-bound (unsafe)
solution is obtained in which the collapse load
determined is either greater than or equal to the
true value.
If only the yield and equilibrium conditions are
satisfied then a Lower-bound (safe) solution is
obtained in which the collapse load determined is
either less than or equal to the true value.
56
The bending moments cannot exceed the Mp

value for a given cross-section.
It is evident that when hinges develop they will
occur at the positions of maximum bending
moments.
They will occur at fixed supports, rigid joints,
under point loads and with in the region of
distributed loads.
57
The analysis of beams and frames involves

determining:
1. The collapse load,
2. The number of hinges required to induce
collapse,
3. The possible hinge positions,
4. The independent collapse mechanisms and their
associated Mp values,
58
5. The possible combinations of independent

mechanisms to obtain the highest required Mp
value,
6. Checking the validity of the calculated value with
respect to mechanism, equilibrium and yield
conditions.
59
Example 2
Determine My, Mp, and S for the steel tee beam shown.
Also calculate the shape factor and the ultimate uniform
load wu that can be placed on the beam for a 12-ft simple
span. Fy = 36 ksi.
8 in
1.5 in
wu k/ft
6 in
12 ft
2 in 60
8 in
Solution:
1.5 in
Elastic Calculations:
6 in
A  81.5  62  24 in2
120.75  124.5
y  2.625 in. from top flange
24 2 in
I   13 21.1253  4.8753   121 8 1.53   121.8752   122.4 in4
I 122.4
Z   25.1 in3
C 4.875
3625.1
My  Fy Z   75.3 k - ft ANS
12 61
Solution:
Plastic Calculations:
Neutral axis is at the base of the flange.
S  120.75  123  45 in3
3645
Mp  Fy S   135 k - ft ANS
12
S 45 Mp
Shape Factor  or   1.79 ANS
My Z 25.1
wuL2
Mp 
8
8Mp 8135
wu  2   7.5 k/ft ANS
L 122
62
Plastic Analysis by the Equilibrium

Method / Static Method
Consider the fixed-end beam shown in figure. This
beam is assumed to support a load of 6.5 k/ft,
including its own estimated weight. A W 18 x 50
(Z=88.9 in3) has been selected by the elastic
procedure.
w = 6.5 k/ft
18 ft
63
It is desired to determine the value of wu, the

ultimate uniform load which this W-section can
support before collapse.
The max. moments in a uniformly loaded fixed-
end beam in the elastic range occur at the fixed
ends as shown. w = 6.5 k/ft
18 ft
wL2
24
wL2 wL2
12 12 64
If the magnitude of the uniform load is increased,

the plastic moment will be developed at the beam
ends as shown.
18 ft
less than Mp
Mp Mp
Although the plastic moment has been reached at

the ends and the plastic hinges formed, the beam
cannot fail as it has become a simple end-
supported beam.
65
18 ft
less than Mp
Mp Mp
Plastic hinge Plastic hinge
The load can now be increased on this “simple

beam” and the moments at the ends will remain
constant, but the moment out in the span will
increase as in uniformly loaded simple beam.
66
18 ft
Moment increase after end plastic
hinges formed.
Mp Mp
Mp
Plastic hinge
Plastic hinge
The load may be increased until the moment at

some other point reaches the plastic moment, and
a third plastic hinge will develop and a mechanism
will be created permitting collapse.
67
One method of determining the value of wu is to

take moments at the centerline of beam (knowing
the moment there is Mp at collapse).
For beam reactions see the figure below. The value
of S = 101 in3 is obtained from Manual of Steel
Construction. M w k/ft p M p
u
 L  L L 
Mp  Mp   wu   
 2  2 4  18 ft
wu L2
 Wu L Wu L
16
2 2
16Mp
wu  2
L 68
36101
Mp  Fy S   303 k  ft
12
16303
wu   14.96 k/ft
182
The plastic safety factor or load factor λ equals

14.96/6.50= 2.30.
This value appears to be a more realistic value for
a ductile steel structure than one computed on the
basis of the yield stress (approximately 1.50)
69
The same values can be obtained by considering

the diagrams shown in figure on next slide.
As we know, a fixed-end beam can be replaced
with a simply supported beam plus a beam with
end moments.
The final moment diagram for the fixed-end beam
equals the moment diagram if the beam had been
simply supported plus the end moment diagram.
70
= +
+
- - = + +
-
For the beam under consideration the value of Mp can be

calculated as follows:
2 Wu L2
wu L
2Mp  8
8
wuL2 Mp
Mp 
16
2M p
Mp
Mp
71
Plastic Analysis by the Virtual-Work

Method/ Kinematic Method
As beams or frames become more complex, the
equilibrium method becomes more and more
tedious to apply.
The virtual work or kinematic method usually
prove to be simpler and quicker than the
equilibrium method.
72
In this method, the structure is assumed to deflect

through a small additional displacement after the
ultimate load is reached.
The work performed by the external loads during
the displacement is equated to the internal work
absorbed by the hinges.
73
Consider the beam shown in figure.

w = 6.5 k/ft
18 ft
This beam and its collapse mechanism are

redrawn in figure on the next slide.
74
18 ft
L

2
θ θ
2θ
L L
2 2
Due to symmetry, the rotations at the end plastic

hinges are equal and they are represented by θ in
the figure, thus the rotation at the middle plastic
hinge will be 2θ.
75
The work performed by the total external load

(wuL) is equal to wuL times the average deflection
of the mechanism.
The average deflection equals one-half the

deflection at the center plastic hinge ( ½ x θ x
L/2).
76
The external work is equated to the internal work

absorbed by the hinges or to the sum of Mp at each
plastic hinge times the angle through which it
works.
The resulting expression can be solved for Mp and

wu as follows:
77
 L 1
Mp   2     wuL   
 2 2
16M p wu L2
wu  2
, Mp 
L 16
For the 18-ft span used in Figure these values become

w 18
2
Mp  u  20.25wu
16
Mp
303
wu    14.96 k/ft ANS
20.25 20.25
78
References:
-Structural Analysis by Jack. C. Mc.Cormac
-Structures Theory and Analysis by J. D. Todd
-Examples in Structural Analysis by W. M.C.
McKenzie
-Lecture Notes by Dr. Saeed Ahmad
Thank you
Any Question?

11.plastic Analysis

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11.plastic Analysis

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P lastic Analysis

“The plastic method of structural analysis is

The plastic method is applicable to structures

When the tensile stress reaches a value roughly

This value is seldom actually measured and for

The strain that occurs before the yield point is

But in actuality, it is a very useful characteristic. It

In other words, very high stresses caused by

This portion of the diagram is not too important to

Plastic yielding (plastic range) Strain hardening

Stress Lower yield

The curve will actually continue up to its

The shape of the diagram varies with the speed of

In this theory, rather than basing designs on the

2. More accurate estimate of the maximum load a

The method has some following disadvantages:

Theory of Plastic Analysis

The basic theory is that the stress-distribution

The stress-strain diagram is assumed to have the

Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram

In this range steel members can withstand

The Plastic Hinge

For a rectangular beam the illustration of stress

The “yield moment” of a cross section is defined

If the moment is increased beyond the yield

When the stress distribution has reached this stage,

Any additional moment applied at the section will

The shape factor equals 1.50 for rectangular

The Yield Moment

The elastic section modulus equals I/c or bd2/6 for

The resisting moment equals T or C times the

The Plastic Moment

The plastic section modulus equals bd2/4 for a

The shape factor for this rectangular beam section

At all stages of loading, the compression force C

Or, the plastic neutral axis must be that axis which

In plastic analysis the neutral axis is the “equal

Zxx = 34.9 x 103 mm3

y plastic T ATotal =(AC1+AC2+AT)

A  90 10  90 15  2250 mm 2

For equal area axis:

The Load Factor

We wish to ensure that the load to which a

The load factor against collapse is:

Safety factor against yielding is:

The Collapse Mechanism

Should the load be increased until a plastic hinge

Real hinge Real hinge

Any further increase in load will cause collapse.

The number of plastic hinges required for failure

When a plastic hinge is formed in a SIS, the load

As the load is increased there is a redistribution of

Actually some additional load can be carried after

In this beam the largest elastic moment by the load

As the magnitude of the load is increased, a plastic

Plastic Real hinge

Additional load will cause the beam to collapse.

The arrangement of plastic hinges and perhaps real

Under these conditions the shape of the deformed

ID  2m  r   2n  2  4  5  2  5  3

For any given design load applied to a redundant

Conditions for Full Collapse

1. the mechanism condition in which there must be sufficient plastic