Module 02

Pharmacognosy
PREPARED BY JOSE ALFONSO P. CANTOR, RPH.
Introduction and
History
 Pharmacognosy
Study of drugs of biologic origin usually plants
A highly specialized science that deals with biochemical
and economic features of natural drugs and their
specific components
 History
1.Papyrus Ebers
2.Pedianios Dioscorides
3.Claudius Galen
4.C.A Seydler
5.Fluckiger
6.Jonathan A Schmidt (J.A Schmidt)
7.Scientist who isolated compounds and other novel discoveries
Papyrus Ebers
Discovered in ancient Egypt in a tomb of a
mummy by George Ebers
Scrolls of paper with 600-700 citations of
drugs from plants and animals
 Pedanios Dioscorides
Author of “De Materia Medica” (Medicinal
Materials) that contains 600 plants with
medicinal properties
Claudius Galen
Described method of preparing formula containing
plant and animal drugs in apothecaries
The Father of EXTEMPORANEOUS COMPOUNDING
Created Galen’s cerate or Cold cream
C.A Seydler
He coined the term “Pharmacognosy” in his
dissertation: Analetica Pharmacognostica
Pharmakon means: Drug/Poison
Gnosis means: Knowledge
 Fluckiger
He wrote a comprehensive meaning of
Pharmacognosy
Definition is as follows: “Pharmacognosy is the
simultaneous application of various scientific
disciplines with the object of acquiring drugs from
every point of view”
J.A Schmidt
He is the one who first used the term
“Pharmacognosy” in his book:
Lerbuch de Materia Medica that contains
different medicinal plants and its properties
Prominent Scientists
1. Pelletier and Caventou – discovered Quinine (Anti-malarial
quinoline alkaloid)
2. Friedrich Serturner – isolated Morphine from Poppy
plant/Papaver somniferum
3. Pierre Robiquet – isolated Codeine (Anti-tussive and Narcotic
analgesic)
4. Claude Bernard – discovers the site of action of Tubocurarine
(Isoquinoline alkaloid)
Crude Drugs
 Natural vs Synthetic
Drug Compounds
NATURAL SYNTHETIC
Extracted or obtained Created inside research
directly from plants or laboratory with the aid of
animals computers and scientists
Alkaloids and Penicillins Examples:
(P.chrysogenum and Fluoroquinolones
P.nonatum)
 Crude Drugs
Vegetable or animal drugs that consists of natural substances that have
undergone only the processes of COLLECTION and DRYING

Methods of Preservation (Optional Step)

1. Exposure to 65 °C – prevents insect attacks
2. Fumigation of methyl bromide – anti-fungal and prevents fungal
growth
3. Freezing in -20 °C with a drop of CCl4 – to prevent spoilage
 Method of Extraction
Infusion -Use of hot water (i.e. Tea)
Maceration - Soaked in solvent for long period (2-3
days)
Percolation - Solvent pass through powdered
substance
Digestion – maceration in liquid with gentle heat (<
35-40˚C)
 Method of Extraction
Decoction – passing through the sample with boiling
water
Liquid-liquid extraction – Partitioning of liquids with
different properties
Distillation - Selective boiling and condensation;
samples with different boiling points
Crude Drugs:
Terminologies and Preparation
 Terminologies
Menstruum – solvent or Marc – the undissolved
liquid mixture which portion of the drug that
dissolves the main plant remains after extraction
constituents
Pieces of leaves, bark and
Common examples are: roots
Ethanol, Methanol, Ether
and Acetone
 Terminologies
Extractive
product of extraction process
Indigenous plants
Plants growing in their native countries
Example: Agathis alba (Manila Copal)
Naturalized plants
Plants that grow in foreign land other than their native
homes
Preparation of Crude drugs
Step 1:Collection
gathering sample from the wild; proper time is important

Step 2:Harvesting
gathering of cultivated sample for experiment by manual
or mechanical means
 Preparation of Crude Drugs
Step3:Drying
removal of moisture to protect the plant from microbial spoilage.
Other benefits are
1.Fixes contituents
2.Facilitate comminution (reduction of particle size)
3.Reduces bulk
Curing (Special method of drying)
aims to enhance active constituents and inactivate toxic ones
Example: Cascara sagrada – used as laxative ; cured by MgO within 1 year
 Preparation of Crude drugs
Final step:Garbling
 Physical or mechanical removal of extraneous matter
(soil,dirt,and plant parts)
Optional step
Packaging,storing and Preservation –for protection from
environmental conditions and other purposes such as:
1.To enhance marketability
2.To preserve and prolong shelf life
Evaluation of Drugs and
Drug Adulteration
 Evaluation of Drugs
It is used or utilized to identify the drug and determine
its intrinsic value and purity
Methods are the following:
1. Organoleptic
2. Microscopic
3. Biologic
4. Chemical
5. Physical
 Methods of Drug Evaluation
1. Organoleptic
macroscopic analysis and evaluation using the 5 sense
2. Microscopic
 identification of pure and powdered drug. Identifies shape of
powdered drug and 3D shape
3. Biologic
utilizes living organisms to determine the effect of the drug
Examples are: Pigeon – Digitalis
Sheep - Warfarin and Protamine
Oxytocin – Chicken
Dog - PTH
 Methods of Drug Evaluation
4. Chemical
 best method of determining the official potency (QC
assay)
5. Physical
 application of physical constants to active drug
principles such as color, density, and melting point.
Drug Adulteration
debasement of an article or a drug product
Types of adulteration:
1.Inferiority
2.Spoilage
3.Deterioration
4.Admixture
5.Sophistication
6.Substitution
 Types of Adulteration
1. Inferiority
 any substandard drug or low quality regardless of cause
2. Spoilage
 a drug which is unfit for consumption or can’t be used
due to microbial damage (bacteria or fungi)
3. Deterioration
 destruction of active constituents via aging or bacteria;
still can be used
 Types of Adulteration
4. Sophistication
 the true kind of adulteration which is intentional
;partly replacing the product
5. Substitution
worst kind of substitution; total replacement and
intentional
Classification of Drugs
 Classification of Drugs
1. Morphology
 drugs are grouped according to the part used
2. Therapeutic
 drugs are grouped as they are employed medicinally
3. Chemical constituents
 based on the active principles; Most preferred
method of study
 Classification of Drugs
Taxonomic/Zoological/Botanical
considers phylogeny (natural relationship among plant and animal)
OLD NAME NEW NAME OLD NAME NEW NAME
Labiatae Lamiaceae Palmae Arecaceae
Leguminosae Fabaceae Guttiferae Clussiaceae
Umbelliferae Apiaceae Graminae Poaceae
Compositae Asteraceae Cruciferae Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae or Cruciferous vegetables are CYP
inducers
10 Medicinal Plants of
DOH
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME MEDICINAL USE
Akalpulko/Ringworm Cassia alata Anti-fungal
bush
Niyog-niyogan Quisqualis indica Anthelminthic

Bawang Allium sativum Anti-cholesterol and

Anti-HTN
Yerba buena Mentha cordifolia Analgesic and
antipyretic
Ulasimang bato Peperomia pellucida Anti-gout
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME MEDICINAL USE
Lagundi Vitex negundo Mucolytic and for cough

Sambong Blumea balsamifera Anti-urolithiasis and

diuretic
Ampalaya/Bitter gourd Momordica charantia Supplement for DM

Tsaang gubat Carmona retusa For diarrhea and

stomachic
Bayabas Psidium gujava Astringent and anti-
septic
Carbohydrates and Other
Related Compound
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds that are sweet and
composed of polyhydroxy alcohols
Chemically they are hydrates of C
General formula: Cn(H2O)
Basic unit: Monosaccharide (1 sugar unit)
Monosaccharides
simple sugars; have 1 sugar unit; cannot be
further hydrolyzed
crystalline, water-soluble and sweet
Can be classified as aldose and ketose
most important monosaccharide in
plants:HEXOSES
 Monosaccharides
1.Xylose/Wood sugar
Natural source: Corn cobs and heart of deciduous trees
Use: Diagnostic aid for intestine (absorbed but not metabolized)
2.Glucose/Dextrose (D-glucose)
Aka: Blood sugar, physiologic sugar, grape sugar and corn sugar
Natural source: Grapes
Use: Nutrient, flavoring agent and treatment for hypoglycemia
(D50 in 50 mL)
Monosaccharides
3.Glucose Related Compounds
Liquid Glucose
yellowish, thick, syrupy liquid from incomplete hydrolysis
of starch
Calcium Gluconate
electrolyte replenisher
Calcium Gluceptate
calcium source
Ferrous Gluconate
for IDA
Monosaccharides
4.Fructose
Aka: Levulose or Fruit sugar
The sweetest monosaccharide
Use: Food for diabetic people and sweetener

5. Fructose related compound

Inulin (Homoglycan) – a polyfructan compound used to
evaluate GFR
Disaccharides
1.Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
Non-reducing sugar (No free carbonyl carbon)
Alpha 1,2-glycosidic bond
Natural source: Cane sugar (Saccharum officinale) and Beet sugar (Beta
vulgaris)
Uses: Main component of syrup and preservative (>85%)
Molasses
 residual dark colored syrup after crystallization process
Invert sugar
equimolar amounts of glucose and fructose; darken due to Fructose
Disaccharides
2.Trehalose (Glucose + Glucose)
Alpha 1,1-glycosidic bond
Non reducing sugar (No free carbonyl carbon)
can be found in brown seaweed and fungi
3.Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)
Alpha 1,4-glycosidic bond
Aka: malt sugar / beer sugar
produced in large quantities by the hydrolysis of starch during
barley germination
Disaccharides
4.Lactose/Milk sugar (Glucose + Galactose)
Beta 1,4-glycosidic bond
Can be obtained from fresh cow’s milk (Bos taurus)
Can be obtained from the crystallization of whey
The MOST COMMON TABLET DILUENT
Disaccharides
5.Lactulose
Synthetic sugar from the tautomerization of lactose
Uses: Laxative (Duphalac®) – converted to acetic and
lactic acid
Off label use – Hepatic Encephalopathy (traps
ammonia in stool)
Oligosaccharides
1.Maltotriose – 3 glucose units
2.Dextrins
 responsible for browning of the bread
maltotriose & dextrins are called “limiting dextrins”: products of
partial hydrolysis of starch

3.Gentianose - Glucose + Glucose + Fructose

Oligosaccharides
4.Raffinose
Glucose + Fructose + Galactose

5.Stachyose
Glucose + Fructose + Galactose + Galactose
Polysaccharides
Functions of polysaccharides
1.Storage
2.Plant structure
Types of Polysaccharides
1.Homoglycan – made up of 1 sugar type only
2.Heteroglycan – made up of 2 or more types of sugar
Homoglycan
1.Starch (Glucosan)
Natural source: Corn (Zea mays) and Potato (Solanum
tuberosum)
Pharmaceutical use: Tablet diluent, binder, disintegrant
and antidote for Iodine
Mixture of 2 polysaccharides: Amylose and
Amylopectin
 AMYLOPECTIN
AMYLOSE
(PASTE FORMING)
STRUCTURE Linear Branching

Alpha 1,4 and Alpha

GLYCOSIDIC BOND(S) Alpha 1,4
1,6

IODINE TEST Deep blue Purple

RATIO 250-300 glucose units 1000 glucose units

Homoglycan
Starch (Pharmaceutic preparation)
a. Pregelatinized Starch
 starch processed to rupture all or part of granules in the presence of water;
used as tablet excipient
b. Sodium Starch Glycolate
 used as tablet disintegrant
c. Hetastarch
 semisynthetic material used as plasma expander
Homoglycan
2.Glycogen (Polyglucan)
Aka: Animal starch
storage form of carbohydrates in animals
more highly branched compared to starch; frequency of branching:
12-15
Iodine test: Wine red or Red colored solution

3.Inulin/Hydrous Inulin (Polyfructan)

Polymer of fructose (Beta 2,1 bonds)
Measures GFR
Homoglycan
4.Cellulose (Glucosan) or Fiber
Component of plant cell wall
Beta 1,4-glycosidic bond
not digested by mammalian enzyme systems, due to
their lack of cellulase
Natural source: Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
Homoglycan
4.Cellulose (Derivatives)
I. Methylcellulose
 bulk laxative and suspending agent
II. Ethylcellulose
 film coat and tablet binder

III. Cellulose Acetate Phthalate

 for enteric coating

IV. Pyroxilin/Cellulose tetranitrate/Soluble Gun Cotton

 obtained from action of Nitric and Sulfuric acid
Homoglycan
5.Chitin
homopolymer of N-acetyl-ß-D-Glucosamine
Can be found in exoskeletons of crustaceans
and fungal cell wall
Heteroglycan
Usually are gums from different sources
Gums are natural plant hydrocolloids and the types are as
follows
1.Shrub and Tree exudates
2.Marine gums
3.Bacterial gums/Microbial gums
4.Seed gums
Shrub and Tree Exudates
1.Tragacanth / Gum tragacanth
exudate from Astragalus gummifer (can be used in acidic pH; 6%
w/v)
3 Forms Are:
I. Vermiform – natural injuries; twisted into coil (worm-like)
II. Tracaganth Sorts – natural injuries; irregular, tear-like
III. Ribbon/Flake Gum - man-made incision; has longitudinal
striations
Shrub and Tree Exudates
2.Acacia/Gum Arabic
exudate from Acacia senegal
Arabin - complex mixture of Ca, Mg, and K salts of
Arabic acid
Not resistant to acidic pH
Use: suspending agent and emulsifier (35% w/v)
Shrub and Tree Exudates
3.Ghatti gum / Indian gum
exudate from Anogeissus latifolia
Substitute for Acacia (For more viscous dispersions)

4.Karaya gum/Sterculia gum

exudate from Sterculia urens
forms a discontinuous type of mucilage
use: bulk laxative, emulsifier, dental adhesive
Marine Gums
1.Sodium Alginate/Algin
from brown seaweeds (Macrocystis pyrifera)
Use: Gastroprotectant and suspending agent
Components are salt of: Alginic acid and Mannuronic acid (swelling
property)

2.Agar/Japanese isinglas/Gulaman
Obtained from: Geladium cartilagineum and Gracilaria confervoides
use: stiffening agent in preparation of culture media; thickening
agent
Components: Agarose and Agaropectin
Marine Gums
3.Carageenan/Irish moss/Chondrus
Obtained from Red algae or seaweeds:
Chondrus crispus
Gigartina mamillosa

KAPPA IOTA LAMBDA

Stable helix Stable helix No stable helix

Nongelling, thickening
Nongelling agent Gelating agent
agent
Marine Gums
4.Danish agar/Furcellaran
from red algae (Furcellaria fastigiata)
Similar property to Kappa carrageenan
Forms mucilage similar to K-carrageenan
Microbial Gums
1. Xanthan Gum
High MW gum from the action of Xanthomonas campestris on a suitable
carbohydrate
Special characteristic: Pseudoplastic flow
Thickening, emulsifying, suspending agent

2. Dextran gum
From Leuconostoc mesenteroides (Transglucosylase enzyme)
 Seed Gums
SOURCE NOTES
Plantago seed Spanish/French Psyllium  Bulk forming laxative
Blonde/Indian Psyllium  Gum swells

Cydonium Quince seed  Thixotropic hydrocolloid

in lotions
Guar gum Guaran  Bulk laxative, thickener,
disintegrant
Locust bean gum Endosperm of Carob,  Thickener, stabilizer
St. John’s Bread  Substitute of chocolate
Plant Extract
Pectin
 purified carbohydrate on inner portion of rind of citrus fruits;
from apple pomace
Intercellular cementing material obtained from dilute acid
hydrolysis of fruit rind
Plant Extract
Pectin
contains partially methoxylated galacturonic acid Responsible for
swelling property
Used as: Suspending agent and anti diarrheal (micellar formation)
Unripe fruit: Protopectin (insoluble)
Ripe: Pectin
Overripe: Pectic acid
Sugar Alcohols and
Plant Acids
Sugar Alcohols
1.Sorbitol/D-glucitol
Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia)
Half as sweet as sucrose
Humectant, noncaloric sweetener, osmotic laxative (large amounts)
2.Dulcitol/Galactitol
Reduction product of galactose
3.Mannitol
from reduction of Mannose or obtained from Manna (Fraxinus ornus)
DOC for cerebral edema (increase intracranial pressure)
Plant Acids
1.Citric Acid/Tricarboxylic Acid
 Isolated by Scheele; used in effervescent tabs
2.Lactic Acid
acidulant in feeding formula (increase in anaerobic resp.)
3.Tartaric Acid
obtained as a by product in wine industry; used in effervescent
tabs
4.Formic acid
volatile and simplest acid
Plant Acids
5.Acetic acid
precursor of fatty acid
6.Oxalic acid
most insoluble plant acid and can cause hypocalcemia
7.Shikimic acid
precursor of aromatic compounds in plants
8.Malic acid
cant be carbonized; forms gel
Glycosides
Glycosides
Plant constituents which produce sugars as
products of hydrolysis. They are also known as sugar
ethers
Composed of 2 components
1.Glycone – sugar part
2.Aglycone – non sugar portion
Can be hydrolyzed by acid or enzymes
Cardiac Glycosides
1. Digitalis
Sources: Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and
Grecian foxglove (D. lanata)
Constituents:
• Digoxin – water soluble
• Digitoxin – lipid soluble
• Deslanoside/Desacetyllanatoside C – for rapid
digitalization (rapid effect)
Cardiac Glycosides
2. Black Hellebore
Obtained from rhizome and root of Christmas rose
(Helleborus niger)
Main constituent: Hellebrin

3. Apocynum
Black Indian hemp, dogbane (Apocynum
cannabinum)
Main constituent: Cymarin
Cardiac Glycosides
4. Adonis
 Natural source: Pheasant’s eye (Adonis vernalis)
 Main const.: Adonitoxin, cymarin, K-strophantin

5. Strophantum
 Natural source: S. kombe, S. hispidus
 Main constituents
 K-strophanthin
 G-strophanthin (Ouabain) –toxic form
 used as arrow poison to induce cardiac arrest to animals in Africa
Cardiac Glycoside
6. Convallaria
Natural source: Lily of the Valley (Convallaria
majalis)
Main constituent: Convallatoxin

7. Cactus grandiflorus
Natural source: Stem of Night-blooming cereus
(Selenicereus grandifloras)
Cardiac Glycoside
8. Squill
 Natural source: Mediterranean or White Squill (Urginea
maritima)
 Main const.:Scillarenin
 Use:Expectorant, emetic,carditonic, and diuretic

9. Oleander/Rose Bay
Natural source: Adelfa (Nerium oleander)
Main const.:Oleandrin
Anthraquinone Glycoside
Commonly used as cathartics except Chysarobin
(keratolytic)
Borntrager Test – test for anthraquinone glycosides
Derivatives are color orange
MOA: tone of smooth muscle in wall of large
intestines
S/E: Melanosis coli
Anthraquinone glycoside
5 types of anthraquinone glycoside
1.Anthracene – such as rhein and chrysophanol

2.Anthranol/Anthrone – reduced form

3.Dianthrone (2 molecules of anthrone) – more potent such as Senna

4.Oxanthrone – intermediate between anthraquinone and anthranol

5.Aloin/C-glycoside
Anthraquinone Glycoside
1.Cascara sagrada from Sacred bark (Rhamnus
purshiana)
Main constituents: Barbaloin and Chyrsaloin
Should be cured with MgO for 1yr. to reduce irritating properties
To reduce bitter taste take with: Licorice or Yerba santa

2.Frangula/Buckthorn bark from Rhamnus frangula

Component of Movicol® (Frangula + Karaya gum)
Anthraquinone glycoside
3.Aloe
Sources: dried latex juice of leaves

Curacao Aloe (A. barbadensis, A. vera) and Cape Aloe (A. spicata)

Uses: For burns,abrasion ,skin irritation ,purgative and alopecia

Pharmaceutical aide for compound benzoin tincture

 Anthraquinone Glycoside
4.Rhubarb/Rheum/Chinese Rhubarb
rhizome and root of Rheum officinale, R. palmatum, R. rhaponticum
Main constituents: Rhein anthrones
5.Senna/Senna leaves/Slimming tea
Natural sources: Cassia acutifolia and Cassia angustifolia
Main constituents: Sennosides A and B (MORE POTENT than
cascara)
Cultivated on lands resembling rice paddies
Anthraquinone Glycoside
6.Chysarobin
mixture of neutral principles obtained form Goa Powder
(Andira araroba)
Not employed as cathartic because its too potent
Solvent for extraction: Hot benzene
Use: Keratolytic, for psoriasis, eczema and topical fungal
infection
The new replacement for Chysarobin: Anthralin
Saponin Glycosides
One of the most toxic plant principlies (Sapotoxins)
It can cause membrane irritation and hemolysis
(considered as Fish poison)
Saponin have 2 types of aglycone
1. Neutral saponins from Steroids (Monocot)
2. Acid saponins from triterpenoids (Dicot)
Common use: Precursor in preparation of steroids
Saponin Glycosides
Test For Saponins
1. Froth test
honeycomb froth/foam upon shaking with water
(Standard:Gogo bark)
2. Hemolysis test
Destroys RBC (Not for IV)
3. Capillary test
decrease surface tension
Saponin Glycosides (Steroidal)
1. Yam/Dioscorea from Dioscorea floribunda
Main constituent:Botogenin
2. Dioscorea spiculiflora
Main constituent: Diosgenin
major precursors of glucocorticoids
Best source of sDioscorea floribunda
teroids
Saponin Glycosides (Steroidal)
4.Sarsaparilla root from Liliaceae family
Main constituents: Smilagenin , sarsasapogenin
and parillin
Use: Treatment for syphilis, rheumatism and skin
diseases
Saponin Glycosides (Triterpenoidal)
1. Licorice root/Glycyrrhiza from Glycyrrhiza glabra
Main constituent: Glycyrrhizin (50x sweet as sugar)
Uses: Expectorant and Masks taste of bitter drugs
Genin: Glycyrrhetic Acid
Use: Anti-inflammatory for Addison’s disease and peptic
ulcer
C/I: with Anti-HTN drugs (Don’t give to patients with HTN)
Saponin Glycosides (Triterpenoidal)
2.Tiger grass (Centella asiatica)
A dried aerial plant from Apiaceae family
Main constituent: Asiaticoside
Uses: Diuretic, anti-rheumatic and vasodilator
3.Quillaja bark (Quillaja Saponaria)
From rosaceae family
Cyanophore Glycosides
Glycosides that yield hydrocyanic acid and a
derivative of mandelonitrile
Uses: Flavoring agent, anti-sickle cell anemia
and anti-cancer claims
Non-Specific test: Guignard test using Picrate
paper (+) result: Yellow to brown red color
Cyanophore Glycosides
1. Amygdalin from Almond (Prunus amygdalus) or
Apricot (Prunus amerniaca)
2. Prunasin from Prunus serotina
Main constituents:Prunasin compound formed by the
partial hydrolysis of amygdalin
3. Cassava (Mannihot esculenta)
Main constituents: Mannihotoxin and Linamarin (Toxic)
Isothiocyanate Glycosides
Also known as glucosinolates or mustard
glycosides
Found in cruciferous plants (Brassicaceae)
Use: Condiments
 Isothiocyanate Glycosides
1. Black mustard
 Sinapis nigra or brown mustard (Brassica nigra)
 Main constituent: Sinigrin
 Hydrolyzed by myrosinase to allyl isothiocyanate (volatile mustard oil)
2. White Mustard
 Sinapis alba (Brassica alba)
 Main constituent: Sinalbin
 Hydrolyzed by myrosinase to acrinyl isothiocyanate (pungent tasting &
less volatile)
Flavonol Glycosides
1. YELLOW PIGMENTS (Chalcones) and RED PIGMENTS
(BETALAINS)
Rutin and quercetin

2. CITRUS BIOFLAVONOIDS
Hesperidin, hesperitin, diosmin, naringin

3. VITAMIN P (PERMEABILITY FACTOR)

Rutin + hesperidin (For capillary leak)
Flavonol Glycosides
4.Elm
Queretille and quercetin
5.Milk thistle
6.Ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba)
Ginkgolides and bilobalides (for memory
enhancement)
Alcohol Glycosides
1. Salicin
Produces Saligenin/Salicin alcohol after hydrolysis with Emulsin
 Natural source:Willow bark (Salix purpurea, S. fragilis)
 Use:Antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory

2. Populin (Benzoyl salicin)

 Poplar bark (Populus sp.)
Aldehyde Glycosides
1.VANILLA (Vanilla plantifolia)
Main constituents: Vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-
methoxybenzaldehyde) and Avenein
Use: Fixative agent derived from plant

2.ETHYLVANILLIN
synthetic analog
Lactone Glycosides (Anti-coagulant)
1. Coumarin
lactone of hydroxycinnamic acid (use: Flavoring agent)
Natural source: Tonka beans (Dipteryx odorata) & Sweet
clover (Melilotus alba)
2. Dicoumarol/Bisdihydroxy coumarin
Natural source: Improperly cured leaves and flowering
tops of Melilotus officinalis
Lactone Glycosides (Anti-coagulant)
3.Cantharides/Blistering flies
Natural source: Dried insect (Cantharis vesicatoria)
Main constituent: Cantharides (Aphrodisiac S/E:
Priapism)
4.Psoralens (Ammi majus)
Main constituent: Methoxsalen and xanthotoxin
Use: Aid in repigmentation in vitiligo and management
for psoriasis
Phenol Glycosides
1. Bear berry/Uva ursi
Main constituent: Arbutin
Use: Astringent and Diuretic
2. Poison Ivy
Main constituent: Urushiol (Old antidote: Zirconium)
3. Hesperidin
Tannins
Tannins
Non-crystallizable hydrocolloid mixture of polyphenols
Forms colloidal solutions in water and with puckering taste
Use:
Astringent
Carcinogenic potential (Tannins in Areca catechu)
Converts animal hide to leather
Alkaloidal precipitant (Tannic acid)
 Tannins
HYDROLYZABLE NONHYDROLYZABLE
Other name Pyrogallotannins Phlobatannins
Pyrogallol, phenolic
Hydrolyzation Phlobaphenes
acids
FeCl3 Test Bluish black ppt Greenish black ppt
Br Water No precipitate Precipitate
Lead Acetate Soluble Non soluble
Leather Type Bloom Tanner’s red
Tannins
TEST FOR PRESENCE OF TANNINS
1. Goldbeater Test (+) result: Brown or black coloration
2. Gelatin Test (+) result: Gelatin precipitation

TANNINS CAN PRECIPITATE:

1. Proteins
2. Amino acid
3. Alkaloids
Tannins
1. Hammamelis leaf
 Origin: Hammamelis virginiana
 Active constituent: Hamamelitannin
 Use: Astringent & incorporated in hemorrhoidal
preparations (Hemostatic)
 Treatment for insect bites and stings

2. Chinese and Japanese gall

Tannins
3.Nut gall
Main constituents: Gallic acid and Tannic acid
Hardened excrescence from the young twigs of Quercus
infectoria
Caused by puncture of insect (Cynips tinctora) to deposit
its ova
Highest grade of nut gall: Deep blue or blue color
Lowest grade: White
Lipids and
Other Derivatives
Lipids
Lipids are esters of long-chain fatty acids and
alcohols or closely-related derivatives
Functions are:
1. Primarily for food or energy storage
2. Can be fixed oils, fats, and waxes
3. For production of secondary metabolites
 Lipids
FIXED OILS FATS WAXES
Ester of fatty acid and
Ester of fatty acid and Ester of fatty acid and
high MW monohydric
Glycerol (Liquid in RT) Glycerol (Solid in RT)
alcohols

Liquid Solid or semisolid Solid or semisolid

From plants and
From plants From animals
animals
Protection and moisture
Energy storage Energy storage
retention
Lipids
1. Pharmaceutical Uses:
Emollient
Parenteral nutrient in TPN
Lubricant laxative as emulsions
Manufacture of soaps.
Vehicles or bases in other dosage forms
Lipids
USP TESTS:
Acid Value or Acid Number
Milligram (mg) of KOH required to neutralize the free Fatty acids in 1g of substance

Ester value
Milligram(mg) of KOH required to saponify the esters in 1g of substance

Saponification Value or Koettsdorfer Number

Milligram(mg) of KOH required to neutralize the free Fatty acids and saponify the
esters in 1g of substance
Lipids
Iodine Value
Gram(g) of Iodine absorbed under prescribed conditions by 100 g.
Measures degree of unsaturation (I2 reacts with the double bond)

Iodine Value Range Example

Non-drying <100 Olive, almond

Semi-drying 100-120 Cottonseed, sesame

Drying >120 Linseed, cod liver

Fixed Oils
1.Castor oil/Castor
seed of Ricinus communis or Tangan-tangan
Main constituents:
Ricin – 2nd most toxic plant constituent
Tricinolein– liberates ricinoleic acid (Cathartic effect)
Azaleic acid (Anti-acne) – obtained by ozonolysis
Castor oil – Plasticizer for Flexible collodion
Fixed Oils
2.Persic Oil Or Peach Kernel Oil
Natural source: Prunus amerniaca
Fixed Oils
3. Olive Oil/Sweet Oil – From Oleo europea
Different grades of Olive oil:
Virgin oil - cold-pressed oil
Technical - mixed with hot water
Sulfur -extracted with carbon disulfide; inferior quality
Tournant olive - fermentation of fallen, decomposing
olives; low-grade
Uses: Emollient, salad dressing and cooking purposes
Fixed Oils
4. Soybean oil – ripe seed of Glycine soja
Main constituents:
Stigmasterol – steroid precursor
Lecithin – useful in controlling deranged lipid
metabolism
Soybean meal – for detection of blood urea
nitrogen
5. Almond oil – ripe seeds of Prunus amygdalus
Main constituents: Amygdalin
 Fixed Oils
6. Coconut oil – seed kernel of Cocus nucifera
Main component: Lauric & Myristic acid
7. Safflower oil/Kasubha – from seeds of Cantharmus
tinctorius
Use: Anti-lipemic agent
8. Sunflower oil – from Helianthus annuus
Use: Hemostatic
Fixed oils
9. Theobroma cacao/ Cacao butter – seeds of
Theobroma cacao
Use: Suppository base
The only solid fix oil (melts at body temp.)
Theobroma means: Food for the gods
Main constituents: Theobromine and caffeine
Fixed oils (SeCoCoPea)
4 Official Fixed Oils Used In Pharmacy Practice
1. Sesame oil/Benne oil/Teel oil – seeds of Sesamum
indicum
Main constituents: Sesamol ( stability ) & Sesamolin
(synergist for Pyrethrum)
2. Corn oil – from Zea mays
Use: solvent for irradiated ergosterol

NO COCONUT OIL
 Fixed Oils (SeCoCoPea)
4 Official Fixed Oils Used In Pharmacy Practice

3. Cottonseed oil – seed of Gossypium hirsutum

Use: solvent, substitute for lard
*Contains toxic principle:Gossypol*

4. Peanut oil/Arachis oil – ripe fruit or seed of Arachis hypogea

Note:Contains high amounts of Thiamine (Vit. B1)

NO COCONUT OIL
Fats
1.Lanolin
Natural source: Wool of Ovis aries (sheep)
Main Constituent: Cholesterol and isocholesterol
Hydrous lanolin: 25% water
Anhydrous lanolin/wool fat: 0.25% wayer
Use: Water absorbable ointment base and emollient
Fats
2.Cod liver oil – from Gadus morrhua
Note: THE ONLY LIQUID FAT
Use: Nutritional source of Vitamin A and D
Fatty Acids (From Hydrolysis Of Fat And Oil)
1. Stearic acid
Used as tablet diluent except Zinc stearate used as dusting powder
Sodium stearate – stiffening agent and emulsifier

2. Oleic acid/Octadecanoic acid

by product of stearic acid synthesis (Most abundant)
Use: Emulsion adjunct

3. Linoleic and Linolenic acid

aka:Vitamin F
Use: Nutritional source of essential fatty acids
Fatty Acids (From Hydrolysis Of Fat And
Oil)
4. Undecylenic Acid
prepared from pyrolysis of Ricinoleic acid from Castor oil
Use: Anti-fungal for tinea infections
5. Sodium morrhuate
sodium salts of fatty acids from Gadus morrhua
Use: Anti-sclerosing agent to remove varicose
veins
Waxes – Animal sources
1. Spermaceti
Natural source : head of sperm whale Physeter microcephalus
Use: emollient for cold cream
Ambergris – pathologic product of sperm whale used as fixative
2. Beeswax/Yellow wax
Natural source : honeycomb of Apis mellifera
Main Constituent: Myricyl palmitate
Use: Stiffening agent for ointments
Waxes – Plant sources
1.Jojoba Oil– Only Liquid Wax
Natural source : Simmondsia chinensis
Main Constituent: Eicosenoic acid
Use: Emollient
Waxes – Plant sources
2.Carnauba wax
Natural source : Copernicia prunifera
Main Constituent: Myricyl cerotate
Use: Candles, wax varnishes
Volatile Oils
Volatile Oils
are odoriferous principles in plants; aka: Ethereal oils, essential oils &
essences
Must be stored in light resistant tight containers in a dry and cold
place
Uses: Odorants and carminative
Chemical characteristics:
1. High refractive index
2. Optically active (Synthetic are racemic mixture)
3. Immiscible in water (Lipid soluble)
Volatile Oils
Stereoptene
Oxidized hydrocarbon portion (solid)
Menthol, Anethol, & Thymol

Eleoptene
Liquid hydrocarbon portion
Eucalyptol, Methyl salicylate& Eugenol/Clove oil
Volatile Oils
May secreted in specialized secretory
structures:
1. Glandular hairs
2. Modified parenchymal cells
3. Oil tubes (vittae)
4. Lysigenous or schizogenous passages
Volatile Oils
Oil tubes / Vittae Apiaceae
Glandular hairs / trichomes Lamiaceae

Modified parenchymal Piperaceae

cells
Lysigenous / Schizogenous
Rutaceae & Pinaceae
passages
 Volatile Oils VS. Fixed Oils
VOLATILE OILS FIXED OILS
Distilled from natural Obtained via extraction methods
sources

(-) spot test Leave permanent grease on

spot test

Oxidize & resinify Become rancid

Non-saponifiable Saponifiable
Terpenes Has glycerol
Volatile Oils
 Chemical Constituents:
 Terpenes – from acetate-mevalonate pathway, building
block is isoprene (C5) units

 Aromatic compounds – from shikimate pathway

Volatile Oils
Name Formula Example
Monoterpene C10H16 Limonene
Sesquiterpene C15H24 Quinghaosu
Diterpene C20H32 Paclitaxel
Triterpene C30H48 Neem
Tetraterpene C40H60 Tretinoin, β-carotene

 Note: 1 terpene = 2 isoprene units (isoprene: C5H8)

 Volatile Oils
Methods Of Obtaining Volatile Oils
1. Distillation/Cohobation – using Clavenger apparatus
Types of Distillation:
Water distillation - for dried plants not injured by boiling
Water & Steam distillation - for dried & fresh that may be
injured by heat; steam passed through the macerated
mixture (indirect method)
Direct steam distillation - for fresh materials (uses the
moisture)
Volatile Oils
Distillation Method Samples
Water distillation Turpentine

Water & Steam distillation Cinnamon & Clove

Direct steam distillation Peppermint & Spearmint

Volatile Oils
2. Enzymatic Hydrolysis
used for glycosidic volatile oils (Black mustard)
3. Expression
best method for citrus volatile oils (Heat sensitive)
Types of expression
Ecuelle - puncturing/piercing citrus glands
Enfleurage - produces best quality volatile oil; for flower petals;
uses bland fat; used in perfume & pomade
Volatile Oils
4. Extraction
utilizes Soxhlet apparatus using volatile solvents such as
Benzene
5. Destructive Distillation
production of empyreumatic oils; heating without
access of air
(e.g: Tar, Pinaceae & Cupressaceae)
Volatile oils - Perfumery
BASE NOTE
TOP NOTE MIDDLE NOTE
(fixatives)
Intermediate Low volatility & high
Most volatile
volatility & tenacity tenacity

Lemon, Anise, & Thyme, Rose, Neroli Ambergris, Vanillin,

Lavender oil oil Civet, & Musk
Classification of
Volatile Oils
Hydrocarbon Volatile Oils
1. Turpentine Oil/Pine Tree Oil/Spirit Of Turpentine
Natural source: Pinus palustris
Main constituents: Alpha & Beta-pinene
Two types:
Rectified turpentine oil – Alkali distillation of turpentine oil from
aq. solution of NaOH
Terpin hydrate or terpinol - From the acidification via Nitric acid
on rectified turpentine
Oxide Volatile Oils
1.Eucalyptus Oil
Natural source: Eucalyptus globulus
Main Constituent: Cineole, Eucalyptol and
Cajuptol
Uses: Expectorant, antiseptic, diaphoretic &
flavor
 Alcohol Volatile Oils
Source Constituent Use
Peppermint oil Mentha piperita Menthol carminative
Cardamom oil Ellettaria cardamomum Cineole carminative
Coriander oil Coriandum sativum Linalool carminative
Rose oil Rosa gallica, R. alba Nerol, geraniol Perfume
Neroli oil Citrus aurantium Linalool Perfume, flavor

Juniper oil Juniperus communis Borneol diuretic

(Odrinil®)
Pine oil Pinus palustris Pinene carminative
 Aldehyde Volatile Oils
Source Constituent Use
Cinammon oil Cinnamomum Cinnamaldehyde Carminative
loureirii
Orange oil Citrus sinensis Limonene & Decanal Carminative
Citronella oil Cymbopogon Citral Insect Repellant &
winterianus, Perfume
C. nardus
Lemon oil Citrus limon Citral,neral & Carminative
Geraniol
Hamamelis oil Hamamelis virginia Hex-2-enal Astringent For
Hemorrhoids
 Ketone Volatile Oils
Source Constituent Use
Cinnamomun
Camphor Carvone Antipruritic
camphora
Spearmint Mentha spicata Carvone Flavor, carminative

Caraway Carum carvi Carvone Flavor, carminative

Diuretic & for
Buchu Barosma betulina Diosphenol
menstrual problems
Artemisia
Wormwood oil Thujone Counterirritant
absinthium
Cedar leaf oil Thuja accidantalis Thujone, fenchone Counterirritant
 Phenol Volatile Oils
Source Constituent Use
Clove oil Eugenia Eugenol (4-allyl- Dental analgesic
caryophyllus 2methoxyphenol) (Toothache drops)
Thymol Thymus vulgaris Thymol Antifungal &
Antibacterial
Creseote/Pix Fagus grandiflora Gualacol & Cresol Disinfectant &
liquida Expectorant
Juniper tar Pinus palustris Cadinene Local anti-eczema
(Polytar®)
Myricia oil Pimenta Eugenol (4-allyl- Counter-irritant
racemosa 2methoxyphenol)
 Phenolic Ether Volatile Oils
Source Constituent Use
Hallucinogen effect used by
Nutmeg oil Myristica fragrans Safrole, Myristicin prisoners (Amphetamine-
like)

Fennel oil Foeniculum vulgare Anethole Flavor & Carminative

Chinese star Flavor & Carminative

Illicium verum Trans-anethole
anise oil

Anise oil Pimpinella anisum Anethole Flavor & Carminative

 Ester Volatile Oils
Source Constituent Use
Anti-rheumatic &
Gaultheria
Gaultheria oil Methylsalicylate local
procumbens
Irritant
Lavandula Perfume &
Lavander oil Linalyl acetate
angustifolia Anxiolytic
Pine needle oil Pinus mugo Perfume
Allyl
Brassica nigra, B. isothiocyanate,
Mustard oil Rubefacient
alba Acrinyl
isothiocyanate
Resin And Other Derivatives
Resins And Other Derivatives
Properties Of Resins:
complex, amorphous products; hard,
transparent/translucent;soften & melt when
heated
burn with characteristic smoky flame
water insoluble but dissolve in alcohol & other
organic solvents
Resins And Other Derivatives
Mixture of the following:
1. Resin acids
2. Resinates – metallic salts of resin acids
3. Glycoresins – sugars + complex resin acids
4. Resin alcohol
Resins And Other Derivatives
Types of resin alcohol
Resinotannols – complex ROH with High MW; that gives
tannin-like reaction with Fe
Resinols – complex ROH with High MW; no tannin-like
reaction
Resenes – neutral substances devoid of chemical
properties
Resins
1. Rosin/Colophony (Pinus palustris)
has hydrides of abietic acid
Special note: Common adulterant of resinous products
Uses: Stiffening agent and Diuretic
2. Podophyllum/Mayapple/American Mandrake (Podophyllum
peltatum)
Contains: Peltatin – purgative
Podophyllin – caustic agent for warts
Podophyllotoxin – toxic agent & anti-mitotic
Etoposide and Tenoposide – Anti-cancer
Resins
3. Eriodictyon/Yerba santa (Eriodictyon californicum)
Main constituent: Eriodictyol – mask the bitter taste of quinine and expectorant

4. Jalap/Jalap root (Exogonium purga)

Main constituent: Ipurganol & Jalapin – purgative

5. Mastic/Mastiche (Pistacia lenticus)

Main constituent: mastichic acid (α-resin), masticin (β-resin)
Use: Dental varnish & to seal cavities (root canal) in dentistry
Resins
6. Kava/Kava-kava (Piper methysticum)
Main constituents: Yangonin, kawain and Methysticin
Use: Centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant, anti-pyretic and
Anxiolytic

7. Cannabis/Indian hemp/Mary jane (Cannabis sativa & Cannabis

indica)
Special note: Resin is called hashish
Main constituent: ∆9 – Tetrahydrocannabinol
Uses: Euphoric agent, appetite stimulant and anti-seizure (Marijuana
oil)
Oleoresin (Volatile oil + Resins)
1. Gum turpentine/Gum thus (Pinus palustris)

2. Capsicum/Cayenne pepper (Capsicum fretescens &

C.annum)
Main constituent: Capsaicin (alkaloid) – irritant and
external analgesic
Special note: High in vitamin C
Oleoresin (Volatile oil + Resins)
3. Ginger/Zingiber (Zingiber officinale)
Constituents are:
Bisabolene,zingiberene & zingiberol for Aroma
Zingerone &shogaol for Pungency

4. Copaiba/Balsam of copaiba (Copaifera langsdorffi)

Special note: NOT A TRUE BALSAM
Oleogum resin (Gum + Oleoresin)
1. Myrrh/Gum myrrh (Commiphora molmol)
Main constituents: Commiphoric acids and
protocatechuic acids
Special note: Used as embalming agent in Acient
Egypt and Astringent in Astring-o-Sol®

2. Asa Fetida/Devil’s dung (Ferula assafoetida)

Main constituent: Isobutylpropanyl disulfide
Special note: Ill-smelling
Balsams
1. Storax/Styrax
component of Compound benzoin tincture
Main constituent: Storesin
2. Peruvian Balsam
local protectant and posses parasiticide activity
Main constituents: Benzyl benzoate and cinnamate derivatives

3. Tolu balsam
component of Compound benzoin tincture
Main constituents: Toluresinnotannol cinnamate and Benzyl benzoate
4. Benzoin
component of Compound benzoin tincture
Alkaloids
Alkaloids
Organic nitrogenous plant secondary metabolites which are
pharmacologically active
Other properties
Bitter taste
Usually crystalline or amorphous
Alkaloid base – lipid soluble
Alkaloidal salts – water soluble
All alkaloids are solid except: Coniine, Arecoline, Nicotine & Sparteine
 Alkaloidal Reagents
Reagent Composition Positive result
Mayer’s  Potassium Mercuric Iodide Cream ppt
 Alkaline Potassium Mercuric Brown ppt
Nessler’s
Iodide
Wagner’s  Iodine In Potassium Iodide Reddish brown ppt
Dragendorf’s  Potassium Bismuth Iodide Reddish brown ppt
Valser’s  Mercuric Iodide White ppt
Marme’s  Cadmium In KI Cream ppt
Sonnenchein’s  Phosphomolybdic Acid Yellow ppt
 Phosphotungstic Acid yellow to orange
Schiebler’s
ppt
Hager’s  Saturated Picric Acid Yellow ppt
Alkaloids (Ring Structure)
1. Protalkaloids Or Non-heterocyclic Alkaloids
They contain nitrogen in a side chain and considered
as an alakaloid due to their pharmacological property
Other name: Alkaloidal amine
2. Heterocyclic Or Typical Alkaloids
The nitrogen is in a ring structure and chemically
considered as an alkaloid
 Pyridine-piperidine Alkaloids
Source Use
Nicotine Nicotinia tabacum Smoking deterrent

Areca Nut Areca catechu Anthelminthic

(Taenacide)
Lobella Lobelia inflata Smoking deterrent
Special notes: Nicotine is a derivative of pyrollidine
Lobeline is less addictive than nicotine
Tropane Alkaloid
1. Belladonna/Deadly night shade (Atropa belladonna)
Main constituents: Hyoscyamine & Atropine
Use: Atropine - Anti-cholinergic and Antidote for cholinergic
poisoning
Hyoscyamine – Anti spasmodic for menstruation
2. Hyoscyamus/Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)
Main constituents: Hyoscyamine & Scopolamine
Use: Scopolamine - Anti motion sickness
Tropane Alkaloid
3. Egyptian Henbane (Hyoscyamus muticus)
contains Hyoscyamine
4. Talumpunay/Thorn apple (Datura metel)
local source of Scopolamine/Hyoscine
5. Withania (Withania somnifera)
Main constituents: Tropine, Pseudotropine and Hygrine
Use:Sedative
Tropane Alkaloid
6. Stramomium/Jimson weed (Datura stramomium)
Special note: Burned to release the vapor as anti-
asthma (Burnt weed)
7. Duboisia (Duboisia myoporoides)
Commercial source of Atropine
8. Pituri/Australian Tobacco
9. Mandragora/European Mandrake
 Tropane Alkaloid
10.Coca/Coca leaves/Divine the plant of Incas
(Erthroxylum coca or Huanuco coca)
Main constituent: Cocaine – prototype of local anesthetic
(the only one with vasoconstriction)
MOA: Blocks reuptake of Dopamine
Effects: Psychomotor stimulant and addictive
Notes: Cocaine potentiates analgesic effect of morphine &
counteracts sedative and respiratory depressive effect of
morphine
Pharmaceutical preparation: Brompton’s cocktail for Pain in
cancer patients
Quinoline Alkaloid (Extracted From Bark)
1. Cinchona BARK/Peruvian BARK
Main constituents: Quinine (antimalarial) & Quinidine (Antiarrhythmic)
Red cinchona bark: Cinchona succirubra
Yellow cinchona/Calisaya bark: C. calisaya
S/E is Cinchonism: tinnitus, dizziness, impaired eyesight
Thalleioquinine reaction – test for differentiation of Quinine from
quinidine
(+):Quinidine will yield emerald green colored solution
Quinoline Alkaloid (Extracted From Bark)
2. Dita/Australian Quinine Bark (Alstonia
scholaris)
Main constituent: Ditamine (antimalarial)

3. Cuprea bark (Remijia purdieana)

Commercial source of Quinidine
Isoquinoline Alkaloid
1. Opium/Gum opium/Stone of immortality (Papaver somniferum or
Indian opium)
Contains the following:
Morphine
Codeine
Papaverine
Anarcotine/Noscapine
Thebaine & Papaverine
Main S/E: Respiratory depression, Pinpoint pupils & Coma
Isoquinoline Alkaloid
1. Opium/Gum opium/Stone of immortality (Papaver
somniferum or Indian opium)
Pharmaceuticals related to Opium:
Paregoric - camphorated opium tincture
Laudanum – Opium tincture
Dover’s powder - Ipecac + opium
Twilight sleep – Scopolamine + Morphine
Meconic acid – analytical marker for Opiates
Isoquinoline Alkaloid
2. Sanguinaria/Blood root (Sanguinaria canadensis)
Main constituents: Sanguinarine (The only red alkaloid) &
Chelerythrine
Use: Expectorant and Cosmetic purposes

3. Hydrastis/Goldenseal (Hydrastis Canadensis)

Main constituents: Berberine & Hydrastis
Use: Emetic
Isoquinoline Alkaloid
4. Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha)
Main constituents: Emetine, Cephaline & Psychotrine
Use: Local emetic for poisoning and Anti-protozoan if given IM
(MOA: Protein synthesis (-))

5. Tubocurare/Curare (Strychnos castelnaei)

Main constituents: Tubocurarine – Skeletal muscle relaxant
MOA: Non depolarizing neuromuscular blocker leading to paralysis
QC test: Head drop rabbit test
Indole Alkaloid
1. Rauwolfia (Root Of Rauwolfia Serpentina)
Uses: hypotensive agent with psychotherapeutic effect

2. Catharanthus/Vinca/Periwinkle (Catharanthus
roseus)
Constituent: Vincristine, Vinblastine, Vinorelbine
MOA: Arrest cell division at Metaphase
Use: Anti-CA (e.g. Hodgkin’s disease)
Indole Alkaloid
3. Nux vomica (seed of Strychnos nux vomica)
Constituents: Strychnine (central stimulant), Brucine (alcohol
denaturant)
4. Ignatia/St. Ignatius Bean (Strychnos ignatia)
commercial source of strychnine (vermin killer)
Indole Alkaloid
5. Physostigma/Calabar/Ordeal bean (Physostigma venenosum)
Constituent: Physostigmine for Glaucoma & Anti-
cholinergic poisoning
MOA: Acetylcholinesterase inhibition leading to increase
effects of ACh
Indole Alkaloid
6. Rye ergot/Ergot/Secale Cornutum
dried sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea on Rye bread
Main constituents:
Ergonovine/Ergometrine – oxytocic for postpartum
hemorrhage
Ergotamine – for migraine
Ergotoxine – lipid soluble mixture of Ergocristine,Ergocryptine
& Ergoconine
LSD – most potent hallucinogen
Indole Alkaloid
6. Rye Ergot/Ergot/Secale Cornutum
S/E:Ergotism
Two Types Of Ergotism
Gangrenous ergotism/St. Anthony’s fire – tissue
death due to excessive vasoconstriction
Convulsive ergotism- convulsion associated with
Vit.A deficiency
Imidazole Alkaloid (1 Only)
1. Pilocarpus/Jaborandi (Pilocarpus jaborandii)
Main constituent: Pilocarpine- direct muscarinic
agonist for glaucoma
Steroidal Alkaloid
1. Green hellebore (Veratrum viride)
 insecticide
Effect: Slows down heartbeat leading to hypotension

2. White hellebore (Veratrum album)

insecticide
Effect: Slows down heartbeat leading to hypotension
Purine Alkaloids
1. Caffeine – CNS stimulant (Only reacts with Murexide reagent)
2. Theobromine –diuretic for pulmonary edema and CNS
stimulant
3. Theophylline – for COPD
MOA: Inhibits PDE leading to cAMP and N.E release
Natural sources are:
Cola nuts (Cola nitida)
Coffee bean (Coffea arabica) – aroma is due to Caffeol
Theobroma cacao & Camellia sinensis
Alkaloidal Amines
1. Ephedra/Ma huang (Ephedra sinica)
has Ephedrine (Sympathomimetic)
Use: For hypotension, nasal congestion and asthma (Can
be precursor for amphetamines)
2. Colchicum/Autumn crocus/Saffron meadow
(Colchicum autumnale)
has Colchicine
Use: DOC for acute gout (old) , anti-mitotic and for doubling of
chromosomes
Alkaloidal Amines
3. Khat/Abbyssinian tea (Catha edulis)
has Cathenone
Use: Euphoric (Amphetamine-like effect) and alleviate
hunger
4. Peyote/Mescal buttons (Lophophora williamsii)
Has Mescaline
Special Note: Oldest/First Phenylalkylamine Alkaloid
Effect: Hallucination And Psychomimetic
Enzymes
Enzymes
highly specific organic catalysts of the body playing a vital
role for homeostasis
Properties of enzymes:
soluble in water & dilute alcohol but precipitates in
concentrated alcohol
act best between 35 & 40ºC & negligible activity at
0ºC
denatured at 65ºC & higher temp
Not all enzyme are composed of proteins
Enzymes
Classification Of Enzymes:
1. Oxidoreductase - REDOX reactions examples are CYP and
Dehydrogenases
2. Transferase - transfer of a functional group from one molecule to
another
3. Hydrolase - hydrolytic cleavage (breaking bonds due to water)
Type Of Hydrolases:
 Esterases
 Peptidases
 Glycosidases
Enzymes
4.Lyase - non-hydrolytic cleavage (split molecules
without the use of water)
5.Isomerase - rearrangement; inter-conversion of
isomeric molecules
6.Ligase - joining together of substrate molecules
(Synthetases)
Carbohydrases Or Amylotic Enzymes
Diastase & Salivary diastase: Ptyalin
Amylase Pancreatic diastase: Amylopsin
Sucrase converts sucrose to glucose + fructose
Maltase converts maltose to glucose
Zymase converts carbohydrates to CO2 + alcohol
converts amygdalin to benzaldehyde + HCN + glucose
Emulsin converts salicin to saligenin + glucose
Converts sinalbin and sinigrin
Myrosin
 Esterases For Fats
Lipases converts fats to glycerol + fatty acids

Pectase converts pectin to methanol + pectic acid

Urease converts urea to ammonia

Steapsin digests dietary fats
 Proteolytic Enzymes
Pepsin converts proteins to proteoses & peptones
(active at acidic pH) Acid activator:HCl
converts proteoses & peptones to
Trypsin polypeptides & amino acids (active at
alkaline pH)
Rennin curdles casein in milk present in infants
from Carica papaya; uses – meat
Papain/Vegetable tenderizer,cleansing
pepsin solution ingredient for contact lenses
 Oxidizing Enzymes
Peroxidase catalyze oxidation reactions

Thrombin converts fibrinogen (soluble) to fibrin

(insoluble)
Other Important Enzymes
Contains 2 units of lipase and 25 units of both amylase and protease
Pancreatin Use:Digestive aid

Concentrated form of Pancreatin 12x amylase and 4x protease

Pancrealipase
Protease & milk-clotting enzyme for DNA extraction
From: Pineapple(Ananas comosus)
Bromelains For:Episiotomy and Anti-inflammatory

Hyaluronidase for Hydrolyze: Hyaluronic acid

From:Bacteria, snakes and leeches
injection Promotes drug diffusion
From:Carica papaya
Chymopapain Relieves lower back pain
 Other Important Enzymes
• From:Group-C beta hemolytic streptococci
Streptokinase • Converts plasminogen to plasmin (dissolves clot)
• Use: For thrombosis and pulmonary embolism
• From: Human urine (Kidney cells)
Urokinase
• Use: same as Streptokinase
• From: Bacillus subtilis
Sutilains
• Use: For wound debridement
• From: Clostridium histolyticum
Collagenase
• Use: Wound debridement
• From: E.coli
L-Aspariginase (Elspar®) • Use: For remission induction in acute leukemia
• MOA:Degrades L-asparagine (Anti-tumor)
Other Important Proteins
• Amino acids in seeds of Vicia faba
Levodopa/3-OH-L- • Use:Main therapy for Parkinson’s disease
tyrosine • S/E: Orthostatic hypotension, dark urine ,
granulocytes & N/V
• From sperm of fish (Oncorhynchus)
Protamine sulfate • Antidote for Heparin poisoning
• Sulfated glycosaminoglycan
Heparin • Use:Anti-coagulant
• Degradation metabolite of Penicillin's
Penicillamine • Use: Chelating agent for Cu & anti-rheumatic
 Other Important Proteins
Formed from the partial hydrolysis of collagen from skin;
white connective tissue of animals

Gelatin Have no Tryptophan (incomplete nutrition)

Use: Encapsulating agent, component of

glycerogelatin suppositories & topical protectant
Absorbable Surgical Sterile strand of collagen absorbed by living mammalian
Suture/Catgut Suture tissue
Non-absorbable Surgical Resistant to gelatinase of animals
Suture
Plant Hormones
Gibberelin
stimulates growth & fruiting
Auxin
responsible for phototropism & apical dominance.(+) root
initiation
Absicissic acid
inhibits plant growth
Plant HORMONES
Cytokinin
responsible for cell division leading to growth & stem
elongation
most common form: Zeatin
Ethylene Gas
ripening of fruits; only known gaseous plant hormone; from
methionine