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2 The Digestive System

2 The Excretory System

2 The Respiratory System

2 The Circulatory System


a  
The ability of an organism
to to regulate its internal
environment so as to
maintain a stable condition

Self regulation (Feedback)«


ë by molecular, cellular, processes; tissues, organs.
ë of gases (O2, CO2), nutrients, inorganic substances (salts),
metabolic wastes; etc.
Œ   £ maintain optimum conditions for life-processes,
Œ   £
in spite of continual internal & external changes

  £ constant internal environment allows cells to


  £
become more specialized and efficient at a particular task.

 £ Energetic; increased dependence on specialized


 £
systems.
Œn metazoa, most cells do not come
into contact with the food source.

      

Œngest the food (feed),«

«break it down (digestion), and«

«make the products available to


all the cells.
   
Œngestive feeders
(mouth parts
manipulate solid food)
Fluid feeders
(mouth parts
penetrate (fluid)
food source; suction)

Filter feeders
(mouth parts (mostly) not responsible
for extracting food from medium)

Substrate or
deposit feeders
(mouth parts
manipulate substrate
containing food )

bsorptive feeders
(usually lack mouth parts; absorbs nutrients)
  
The process of breaking down food into its
molecular and chemical components so that these
nutrient molecules can cross plasma membranes

Œntra-cellular Extra-cellular
   Π 
(Protozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria)

Food is taken into cells by phagocytosis (endocytosis);


digestive enzymes are secreted into the phagocytic vesicles;
nutrients are released into the cytoplasm
     
Œn the lumen of the digestive system; uses mechanical,
chemical (e.g. PH), enzymatic and possibly bacterial
digestion to release nutrient molecules, which are
transferred to the body fluid.

  
ability to feed upon
food items larger
than those that can
be phagocytized
Cnidaria & platyhelmithes
Gastrovascular cavity   

The relative dependence


on extra-cellular
digestion increased with
the appearance of the
complete digestive
system and its increasing
complexity
     º the ³tube within a tube´ design
Reception£ Buccal cavity
& salivary glands

Foregut Conduction£ Pharynx


& Esophagus
Buccal cavity (ʤʲʩʬʡ ʺʩʡ)
Pharynx (ʲʥʬ) Storage & early
Esophagus (ʨʹʥ) digestion£ Crop

Crop (ʷʴʦ) (?)


Grinding£ Gizzard

Gizzard/ Stomach (ʤʡʩʷ\ʯʡʷʸʥʷ)


Midgut£ final digestion
Midgut & Cecum (ʯʥʫʩʺ ʩʲʮ) & nutrient absorption

Hindgut (ʩʸʥʧʠ ʩʲʮ)


Hindgut£ water
absorption & solid
concentration
Ectodermal origin
Endodermal origin

© 

 
the ³tube within a tube´ design

    
Movement of food
Secretion of gastric juices & enzymes
Digestions£ mechanical, chemical & enzymatic
bsorption of nutrients
Elimination of undigested food & wastes.

  £
Enables sequential processing of food; no loss
of undigested food while disposing of solid wastes.
†   
     

. CO2
2. Solid wastes
(indigestible material)

3. Metabolic wastes
(nitrogenous; from intra-cellular
breakdown of amino & nucleic acids)
 
 

 £
) Remove metabolic (nitrogenous) wastes.
2) Regulate solute concentrations by
    secretion or reabsorption.
3) Regulate water volume by excretion or
retention of water.
Ë    
products of cellular protein (& nucleic-acid) catabolism

mino acid + O2 Ketoacid + mmonia (NH3)

Metabolic
paths

Highly soluble & toxic


Quick disposal
Ë  
       
 

mmonia

   

rea2 ric acid3

 Common in aquatic invertebrates


2 'ncommon (Terrestrial Platyhelminthes, Annelids & Molluscs)
3 Most terrestrial invertebrates (arthropods)
†     

  
ë mount of energy needed to dispose of excess nitrogen
ë mount of water needed to keep concentrations below toxic levels

Energy Toxicity/solubilityWater use


mmonia low high high
'rea2 medium medium medium
ric acid3 High low low

 Common in aquatic invertebrates


2 'ncommon (Terrestrial Platyhelminthes, Annelids & Molluscs)
3 Most terrestrial invertebrates (arthropods)
Diffusion of ammonia through the outer
and/or respiratory membranes of aquatic
invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans, cnidaria)
   | 

Π   
. ltrafiltration£ filtration of hemolymph or blood
across a semi-permeable membrane, due to
differences in hydrostatic pressure (water and
solutes [ammonia/urea, salts, glucose] move from high
to low pressure area). Forms µfiltrate¶ (ʯʩʰʱʺ).

2. ctive transport£ The selective secretion and


absorption of solutes to/from the filtrate (mediated
by membrane-bound proteins). Forms urine.
 
 
|   
Platyhelminthes
ë'    Flagella of
Flame Cells create low
pressure in the tubules;
water and solutes follow
pressure gradient into the
tubules.

ë ctive secretion & re-


absorption of physiologically
important molecules (e.g.
glucose) take place before
urine empties into the
external environment via
the Ë   .
2 ltrafiltration across the
membrane of the major blood !   
vessels; water and solutes move nnelids, Molluscs
into coelomic fluid due to high
blood pressure (no
ultrafiltration by
metanephridia)
2Coelomic fluid enters
the the metanephridia
tubules via a funnel shaped
opening - Ë    .
2 ctive transport of materials
to/from blood in capillary
network, or sinus, that
surrounds the tubules. rine
exists via the    .
!   
nnelids, Molluscs
! " 
Œnsects, some spiders

2 Closed tubules that open to the gut


2 Salts are actively transported from the
hemolymph into the tubules; Osmotic
gradient draws water and dissolved
wastes into the tubules

2 Rectal glands reabsorb


water, and nutrients
2 ric acid is precipitated;
crystals are excreted with
faeces
    

Osmotic regulation in
crustaceans;
(ammonia excretion by
diffusion through gills)

ltrafiltration directly
into µend sac¶ due to
hydrostatic pressure of
the blood
a   
. Feeding

2. Digestion
    
(in freshwater crustaceans; osmotic regulation;
ammonia excretion by diffusion through gills)

End sac
Site of ultrafiltration due to
hydrostatic pressure in hemocoel)

Bladder
Nephridial canal
Site of active secretion/absorption
Ë    
products of cellular protein (& nucleic-acid) catabolism

mino acid + O2 Ketoacid + mmonia (NH3)

mmonia rea2 ric acid3

 Common in aquatic invertebrates


2 'ncommon (Terrestrial Platyhelminthes, Annelids & Molluscs)
3 Most terrestrial invertebrates (arthropods)
| 
 
The Digestive System 2

The Excretory System 2

The Respiratory System 2

The Circulatory System 2


©  

    £ the release of energy by the


    
oxidation of food (in mitochondria), forming TP & CO2
as a byproduct

    £ the exchange of oxygen and


    
carbon-dioxide between an organism and its environment
#  
2 Gases enter and leave the body by  across
a moist     .

£ the random


spreading of molecules due
to their kinetic energy &
momentum

Diffusion rate depends on£


 Diffusion coefficient
 Surface area
 Concentration gradient
 Distance D=(C-C2) / x2
        
       

2 O2 consumption and CO2 production rates


are proportional to the organism¶s volume.

2 ßarger animals have a smaller


surface-area to volume ratio, and
longer average distance between
cells and the respiratory surface

Respiration based on
diffusion across the
epidermis sets an upper
limit to body (& cell) size
     
Gas exchange across the outer membrane

Distance between
metabolizing tissue and
respiratory surface <mm
Flat worms Small, flat organisms.
Protozoa

Nematoda

Restricted to aquatic
or moist environments
(drying would reduce the
diffusion coefficient)
R 

R   R 

         
        

. ßarger respiratory surface, with no


increase in volume.
2. ctive maintenance of concentration
gradient£    $
3. Shorter distances across which gases
have to travel by diffusion (O2 delivery,
and CO2 removal, to/from cells).

Respiratory and Circulatory systems


         
        

. ßarger respiratory surface, with no


More efficient gas
increase in volume. exchange with
2. ctive maintenance of concentration external medium
gradient£    $
3. Shorter distances across which gases
have to diffuse (O2 delivery, and CO2
removal, to/from cells).

Respiratory system
©    
Gills ± Crustaceans, aquatic nnelids & Molluscs
. Highly folded membrane; increases the
respiratory surface (internal or external).
2. Highly vascularized to facilitate gas
exchange with the circulatory system.
©    
Trachea - insects, some spiders
ë Fine air-conducting tubules, enabling
gas exchange at the cellular level.
ëFunctions in exchange & delivery.

~0.um
Mechanical limit to the size of
trachea restricts the max. size
of insects (given atmospheric
O2 concentrations)

Titanus giganteus
~60cm
~15 cm
©    

Poor flow of external medium


around respiratory membrane£
ĺ weak concentration gradient
ĺ slow diffusion

O   
- Maintains a concentration
gradient across the respiratory
surface
- Common in active species
©    
ßungs - Spiders; Scorpions (book lungs)
- Terrestrial Gastropods
º Highly branched membrane;
spatially localized.
º ncestral to trachae (less efficient)

Pneumostome

Hemocoel Book lungs


©    
  % &  
#    
         
        

. ßarger respiratory surface, with no


increase in volume.
2. ctive maintenance of concentration
gradient£    $
3. Shorter distances across which gases
have to travel by diffusion (O2 delivery,
and CO2 removal, to/from cells).

Circulatory system
   
        
        

Gastrovascular Open Closed


Cnidaria; [flat worms] rthropods, most Molluscs nnelids, Cephalopods
   
Gastrovascular (Cnidaria, [flat worms] )

Medium of transport£ water


Propulsive mechanism£ cilia/flagella; body movement
   
Closed Open
( nnelids, Cephalopods) ( rthropods, most Molluscs)

Separation between external and internal medium


Circulatory system can be used to transport other
materials; e.g. hormones, elements of the immune system
   

Closed
( nnelids, Cephalopods)

Medium of transport£ blood; separated from lymph


Propulsive mechanism£ muscular heart(s)/arteries
Vessels£ arteries; veins; capillaries
   

Open
( rthropods, most Molluscs)

Medium of transport£ hemolymph


(no separation between blood and lymph)
Propulsive mechanism£ muscular heart(s)/arteries
Vessels£ arteries; sinuses
i.e. Tissues in direct contact with hemolymph
   
"
       

2 Separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood


increases the gas-exchange efficiency; high metabolic
rates and activity levels

2 Regulation of blood flow to to specific


tissues/organs (e.g. Oxygenated blood can be directed
quickly to muscles during rapid movement)
    
separation of oxygenated
and de-oxygenated blood
©      
   "'     ()

ë Proteins with a metal ion, capable of binding oxygen reversibly


ë Can occur in blood cells, plasma, or within tissues
ë Found in ~/3 of invertebrate phyla
ë No pattern in taxonomic distribution; independent evolution

|    
   «

a        



 
a          

a      |  

      |  

* Most common
  

     
higher gas-exchange efficiency in gills
There is only /20 the amount of oxygen
present in water as in the same volume of air
water

blood

water

blood

 
|    
O2 & nutrients delivery; CO2 & metabolic waste removal

  * '


Circulatory system - transport/delivery
Respiratory system ± gas exchange

   
The evolutionary increase in body size
Higher metabolic rates (more active life style)
The evolution of exoskeleton
Radiation to drier terrestrial habitats
©    
Trachae - insects,
some spiders
Fine air-conducting
tubules, enabling gas
exchange at the
cellular level.
(Functions in exchange &
delivery).

~0.um
Diving beetles quatic larval stages
#  

2 Gases enter and leave the body by diffusing across a


moist     , following a concentration
gradient and at a rate that is proportional to the area
of the respiratory surface.
2 The rate with which a given cell can exchange gases
depends on its distance from the respiratory surface.
2 O2 consumption and CO2 production rates are
proportional to the organism¶s volume.
     
   
R 

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