Lecture 2: Introduction to Networks

 A network consists of multiple computers connected

using some type of interface, each having one or
more interface devices such as a Network Interface
Card (NIC) and/or a serial device for PPP networking.
 Each computer is supported by network software that
provides the server or client functionality.
 The hardware used to transmit data across the
network is called the media. It may include copper
cable, fiber optic, or wireless transmission.
 The standard cabling used for the purposes of this
document is 10Base-T category 5 ethernet cable.
Network Categories
There are two main types of network categories
which are:
• Server based
• Peer-to-peer
 In a server based network, there are computers
set up to be primary providers of services such as
file service or mail service.
 The computers providing the service are called
servers and the computers that request and use
the service are called client computers.
 In a peer-to-peer network, various computers on
the network can act both as clients and servers.
Store-and-Forward Systems
 Messages may be stored at intermediate nodes
along the transmission path between sender and
receiver in store-and-forward systems
– This helps ensure message delivery without
obligating the sender to wait until a message is
delivered before transmitting other messages
– It also helps ensure message delivery in the case
of link or destination failure while the message is
in transit
– Store-and forward algorithms are valuable in time-
staged delivery systems and in networks that
assign priorities to different messages
Serial and Parallel transmission
 The transmission mode refers to the number of
elementary units of information (bits) that can be
simultaneously translated by the communications
channel.
 Parallel connection means simultaneous
transmission of N bits. These bits are sent
simultaneously over N different channels
 Serial connection - the data are sent one bit at a
time over the transmission channel. However, since
most processors process data in parallel, the
transmitter needs to transform incoming parallel
data into serial data and the receiver needs to do
the opposite.
The parallel-serial transformation is
performed using a shift register. The shift
register, working together with a clock, will
shift the register (containing all of the data
presented in parallel) by one position to the
left, and then transmit the most significant bit
(the leftmost one) and so on:
Network Topology, Architecture, and
Complexity
 Network topology refers to the physical layout
of a network, the way that nodes attach to the
communication medium
 Network architecture refers to the way in
which media, hardware, and software are
integrated to form a network
 Network complexity is concerned with extent
to which network architectures are simple or
diverse in their make
 Network Topologies
 Bus – All Pcs connect to a common cable/bus. Both
ends of the network must be terminated with a
terminator.
 Star - All devices revolve around a central hub, which is
what controls the network communications, and can
communicate with other hubs. Range limits are about
100 meters from the hub.
 Ring - Devices are connected from one to another in a
ring. A data token is used to grant permission for each
computer to communicate.
 Mesh - allow each computer to have a direct connection
to each of the other computers.
 There are also hybrid networks including a star-bus
hybrid, star-ring network, and tree networks with
connections between various computers on the network.
Reason for multiple topologies

 Each topologies has advantages and

disadvantages. Give them.
Telecom Channels
 Channels - the links by which data or
voice are transmitted between sending
and receiving devices in a network
– twisted wires
– coaxial cable
– fiber-optic cable
– wireless
• microwave
• satellite
Telecom Channels –other Wireless

 Cellular
 Mobile data networks (2-way)
 PCS (personal communication
systems)- to the end user acts like
cellular, but different
 Personal data assistants
 Transmission Speeds

Medium Speed Cost

Twisted W ire 300 bps-10 Mbps Low
Microwave 256 Kbps-100 Mbps
Satellite 256 Kbps-100 Mbps
Coaxial Cable 56 Kbps-200 Mbps
Fiber-Optic Cable 500 Kbps-10 Gbps High
Transmission Media
 These transmission channels are made up of
several segments that allow the data to circulate in
the form of electromagnetic, electrical, light or even
acoustic waves.
 In order for data to be exchanged, an encoding
must be chosen for the transmission signals. This
depends basically on the physical medium used to
transfer the data, the guaranteed data integrity and
transmission speed.
 Data transmission is called "simple" if there are only
two machines communicating, or if only a single
piece of data is sent. Otherwise, it is necessary to
install several transmission lines to share the line
among several different communication actors. This
sharing is called multiplexing.
 COPPER WIRES
 Conventional computers use copper wires as the
primary medium to connect computers because
they are inexpensive and easy to install.
 To minimize interference, networks use one of
two basic wiring types:- twisted pair or coaxial
cable
 The simple twists change the electrical properties
of the wire and make it suitable for use in a
network.- they limit electromagnetic energy the
wire emits, the twists prevent electric current from
radiating energy that interferes with other wires
and others from interfering with its own.
 The jacket protects the cable from the external
environment. It is usually made of rubber (or
sometimes Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) or Teflon).
 The shield (metal envelope) surrounding the cables
protects the data transmitted on the medium from
interference (also called noise) that could corrupt the
data.
 The insulator surrounding the central core is made of
a dielectric material that prevents any contact with the
shield that could cause electrical interactions (short
circuit).
 The core, which actually transports the data, generally
consists of a single copper strand or of several braided
strands.
GLASS FIBERS
 Computers use flexible glass fibers called optical
fibers to transmit data
 A transmitter at the end of one fiber uses LED or
laser to send pulses of light through the fiber
 Advantages over copper wires:-
– They are not susceptible to electrical signal
interference
– Carry pulses of light much farther that copper
– Light can encode more information than
electrical signals hence optical fiber can carry
more data.
– Data from more than one source can be
transmitted at a go.
Disadvantages
 Expensive and technically difficult to install and
maintain
 If the fiber breaks internally, it is difficult to locate
the problem.
Radio
 Phones use electromagnetic waves to transmit
computer data.
 A network that uses electromagnetic radio waves
is said to operate at a radio frequency and
transmissions are referred to as RF transmissions.
 Each participating computer attaches an antenna
which can both transmit and receive RF signals.
Satelites
 A communications satellite (sometimes
abbreviated to COMSAT) is an artificial satellite
stationed in space for the purpose of
telecommunications.
 Radio transmissions do not bend around the surface
of the earth, RF is combined with satellites to give a
solution to this.
 The satellite contains a transponder which consists of
a radio receiver and transmitter.
 The transponder accepts radio signals, amplify and
transmit the signal back at a different angle
 A single satellite contains multiple transponders (six
to twelve) each using a different frequency making it
possible for multiple communications to proceed
simultaneously.
 Communication satellites can be grouped into
two:- Geosynchronous and geostationary
 Geosynchronous (GEO) is placed in an orbit
that is synchronized with the earth rotation.
 The laws of physics are use to determine the
exact distance – 35 785 KM also called High
earth orbit
 Thee is a limited amount of space available in
the orbit because they have to be separated
by some distance between them
 The minimum separation distance depends
on power of the transmitters generally 4 to 8
degrees – the entire equator can hold 45 to
90
Low earth Orbits (LEO)
 They do not stay at a single location but travel
around the earth faster than the earth.
 A single LEO can complete an entire orbit in 1.5
hrs.
 Having a satellite that does not appear stationary
causes problems –
– Can only be used during the time the orbits
pass between two ground stations
– Maximal utilization requires complex control
systems that continuously move the ground
stations
– How are they therefore used?
Microwave
 Electromagnetic waves beyond the radio and
television frequencies can be used to
transport information.
 Although they are a few frequencies higher
than radio frequencies they behave differently
– They can be aimed at a single direction.
 They also carry more data at lower frequency
transmissions
 Microwaves cannot penetrate metal
structures and work best under a clear path
between the transmitter and receiver
Infrared
 Infrared light lies between the visible
and microwave portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 It is limited in distance
 The transmitter must be pointed to
receiver and does not require an
antenna
Data Communication
Frameworks
 Two major data communication
frameworks have been developed to help
ensure that networks meet business and
communication requirements:
– Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO)
– Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) suite
 Models of the Internet
OSI/ISO Reference Model TCP/IP Reference Model

Application Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Model Layers Transport
Network Internet
Data Link Host-to-network
Physical
Open Systems Interconnection Transmission Control
(International Standards Office) Protocol/
Internet Protocol
Summary
 Data Communications Supports Applications
 The Operating System manages the
resources of the computer.
 There must however, be a system that
provides a bridge between applications and
the devices so they can communicate—this is
called a Transaction Control Process (TCP)