Theories of Aging

All my life I've been taught how to die,

but no one ever taught me how to grow
old
“
BILLY GRAHAM, Newsweek, Aug. 14,
2006
 AGING
 Ageing, a maturational process that creates
the need for individual adaptation because
of physical and psychological declines that
occurs during life
 Factors Affecting Aging
 Hereditary Factors
 Environmental Factors
Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors
 Socioeconomic Factors
 Nutrition
 Activity
 Stress
 Theories of Aging
The mysteries that control human lifespan are yet to be unraveled
Many theories have proposed to explain the process of aging, but neither
of them appears to be fully satisfactory.
 They attempt to answer these questions

 Why do we age?
 When do we start aging?
 What is the aging marker?
 Is there a limit to how old we can grow?
 What is the alternative to growing old or dying?
 What is the price of increased longevity?
Theories of Aging
 The major challenge for nurses is to determine just what
areas of knowledge are important for providing the best care
 The knowledge provides a basis for decision making and
problem solving for issues of aging as
 Incontinence
 Cognitive Impairment
 Susceptibility for Infection
 Mobility issues
 Loneliness
 Etc
 Theories of Aging

BIOLOGICAL
THEORIES
Addresses the
anatomic and
physiologic changes
occurring with age.

.
Psychological Theories
 explains the thought processes
and behaviors of aging persons
 Sociological Theories
 Social theories on aging examine the relationship
between individual experiences and social
institutions e.g. aging and retirement; aging and
institutional care; aging and government policy etc.
 Biological Theories of Aging
 Biological Theories attempt to explain physical aging as an
involuntary process, which eventually leads to cumulative changes
in cells, tissues and fluid
 Cell division shapes the human organism with its varied systems at
different rates of generation and re-generation throughout the life
span
 Theories are addressed from a molecular, cellular or system
perspective
 Some are superimposed on others
 Biological Theories of Aging
MAY BE
 Intrinsic Biological Theory- maintains that aging
changes arise from internal, predetermined causes

 Extrinsic Biological Theory- Extrinsic biological theory

maintains that environmental factors lead to structural
alterations, which in turn cause degenerative changes.
 Biological Theories of Aging
Genetic Theories Nongenetic Theories
 Gene  Immunologic / Autoimmune
 Error Accumualtion  Free Radical
 Somatic mutation  Wear & Tear
 Programmed  Accumulative Waste
 Endocrine  Aging Clock
 Telomerase  Cross link or Collagen
 Genetic Theories
Gene Theory

Variations
 One theory of aging believes that lifespan is largely determined by the
genes we inherit. Our potential age is primarily determined at the
moment of conception.
Evidence to support this theory.
 People with parents who have lived long lives are more likely to live
long themselves (though this could be partially explained by learned
behaviors, such as food preferences).
 Identical twins (who have the exact same genes) have closer lifespans
than siblings
 Gene Theory
Another states

 Aging is the result of harmful genes that

become active later in life.
 There are two types of genes; one for youth
vigor (juvenescent genes) and the other for
structural deterioration (senescent genes)
Error Accumulation & Fidelity Theory
 Normally, we constantly or faithfully (fidelity) produce cells
throughout our bodies using our same DNA map (or proteins).
 Fidelity means that it faithfully does the same thing over and over
again.
 This theory is suggests that errors in RNA synthesis
(transcription) cause errors to occur.
 Over time an error or mistake occurs in the DNA map (or
proteins) and it begins to produce cells that are not correct
(mutations).
 The accumulation of these flawed molecules can cause diseases and
other age changes to occur
Biological theory
 Somatic Mutation Theory
 Similar to the error theory
 Cells are exposed to chemicals or radiation resulting in
alteration of the DNA molecule
 DNA damages occur continuously in cells of living organisms.
 Most of these damages are repaired, but some accumulate, repair
mechanisms cannot correct defects as fast as they are apparently
produced.
 Genetic mutations occur and accumulate with increasing age,
causing cells to deteriorate and malfunction. In particular,
damage to mitochondrial DNA might lead to mitochondrial
dysfunction. Therefore, aging results from damage to the genetic
integrity of the body’s cells.

Programmed Cellular Aging Theory (Hayflict & More head)
 Aging follows a biological timetable, perhaps a continuation of the
one that regulates childhood growth and development. This
regulation would depend on changes in gene expression that affect
the systems responsible for maintenance, repair and defense
responses.
 Every organism is programmed to live for a certain number of
years.
 It is as though each one of us comes into the world as a
machine/biological clock that is preprogrammed to self destruct
(genetic programming).
 It is thought that there is an impairment of the cell in transcription
RNAs so the translating messages into functional proteins may be
restricted in older people
 Telomerase theory of aging
 Telomeres are sequences of nucleic
acids extending from the ends of
chromosomes. Telomeres act to
maintain the integrity of our
chromosomes. Every time our cells
divide telomeres are shortened,
leading to cellular damage and
cellular death associated with aging.

 ENDOCRINE THEORY
Biological clocks act through hormones
to control the pace of aging. Recent
studies confirm that aging is
hormonally regulated
 Non- Genetic
Immunologic / Autoimmune
 As the body ages the immune system is less able to
deal with foreign organisms & increasingly make
mistakes by identifying ones own tissues as foreign
(thus attacking them).
 These altered abilities result in increased
susceptibility to disease & to abnormalities that result
from autoimmune responses.
 Wear & Tear (Dr. August Weismann 1882)

 Somatic cells cannot renew themselves .

 Aging is believed to be the result of cellular damage by
overuse and abuse.
 The organs are worn down by toxins in our diet and in the
environment, by excessive consumption of fat, sugar,
alcohol and nicotine, by UV rays and other physical and
emotional stressors.
 Simply using the organs is going to wear them out
 Free Radical (Dr. Gerschman in 1954)
 Free radical is a term used to describe any molecule
that possesses a free electron, a property that makes it
react with other molecules in a volatile way,
 Electrons comes in pairs so their electrical energy
cancel each other.
 Atoms that have missing electrons combine with
atoms that have extra electrons, creating a stable
molecule with evenly paired electrons and a neutral
electrical charge
 A free radical on the other hand has an extra negative charge. This
unbalance tends to make them attach itself to other molecules as it
tries to steal a matching electron to attain electrical equilibrium
 The analogy is that free radicals are promiscuous breaking up happy
marriages of paired electrons.
 In doing so they create free radicals and extensive body damage
 They attach the cell membrane structure, creating metabolic waste
products like lipofuscins (yellow-brown pigment granules
composed of lipid-containing residues of lysosomal digestion)
which interfere with the cells ability to repair and reproduce
 They disturb DNA and RNA synthesis which in turn interfere with

protein synthesis and prevent our bodies from building muscle mass as
well as destruction of cellular enzymes
 Free radical activity begin at birth, and the accumulated effects begin to

take a toll after some time

 Free radicals can also create mutant cells

 Free radicals attack collagen and elastin, hence the wrinkles

Positive aspects of free radicals
The biochemical activity is necessary
 To produce energy
 Maintain immunity
 Transmit nerve impulses
 Synthesize hormones
 Contract muscles
 Prevention of the Harmful effects fo Free
Radicals

 Antioxidants; help your body protect itself from the

rigors of oxidation e.g. vitamin C, E and beta carotene
for production of vitamin A. Antioxidants terminate the
chain reactions by removing free radical intermediates,
and inhibit other oxidation reactions by being oxidized
themselves.
 Accumulative Waste
 In the course of life, cells produce waste and which
if not eliminated adequately can interfere with
normal cell function
 Evidence to support the presence of waste is
lipofuscin (yellow-brown pigment granules
composed of lipid-containing residues of lysosomal
digestion)
 Aging Clock
The Hayflick Limit Theory
 The Hayflick Limit Theory of Aging (so called after its discoverer Dr.
Leonard Hayflick) suggests that the human cell is limited in the
number of times it can divide

 Dr. Hayflick theorized that the human cells ability to divide is limited
to approximately 50-times, after which they simply stop dividing (and
hence die). There is simply not enough DNA information available to
complete any sort of division
 He also showed that nutrition has an effect on cells, with overfed
cells dividing much faster than underfed cells
 Calorie restriction in animals significantly increases their life-
span. In essence less fed animals live longer
 This may be due to less free radical activity and therefore less
cellular damage
 The Hayflick Limit indicates the need to slow down the rate of
cell division if we want to live long lives.
 Cross link or Collagen (Johan Bjorksten in 1942 )
 An accumulation of cross-linked proteins damages cells and tissues,
slowing down bodily processes resulting in aging
 The Cross-Linking Theory of Aging is also referred to as the Glycosylation
Theory of Aging. v
 In this theory it is the binding of glucose to protein, (a process that
occurs under the presence of oxygen) that causes various problems-
cross - linking.
 Once this binding has occurred the protein becomes impaired and is
unable to perform as efficiently.
 Living a longer life is going to lead to the increased possibility of oxygen
meeting glucose and protein
 Known cross-linking disorders include senile cataract and the appearance
of tough, leathery and yellow skin.
 An Example of cross linking ; cut an apple in half and watch the
oxygen in the air react with the glucose in the apple as it turns
yellow and brown and eventually becomes tough.
 It is thought that glucose bonding to DNA is the course of many
problems as one grows old.
Psycho-Social Theories of Aging
 Disengagement Theory

 Activity Theory

 Continuity Theory

 Modernization Theory

 Cognitive Theory
 Disengagement Theory
 Developed by Cummings and Henry in late 1950’s.
 “Aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in
decreased interaction between the aging person and others in the social system
he/she belongs to.”
 As people age, they tend to withdraw from society and customary social roles
and engage in the more introspective, self-focused activities
 Withdrawal is said to be mutual, with society being less likely to engage with
and include older people.
 This was a consequence of people learning their limitations with age and
making way for new generations of people to fill their roles.
 Critics point out that often this disengagement is enforced, rather than
voluntary
Disengagement Theory
Four Concepts
1. Aging person and society mutually withdraw form each other
2. Disengagement is biologically and psychologically intrinsic and
inevitable
3. Disengagement is considered necessary for successful aging
4. Disengagement is beneficial for older adults and society
 Explained how people prepared for death. By slowly letting go of
society, older adults were supposedly getting ready to let go of life as
well.
 Beneficial to society, as people moved through different roles in life
and created spaces for younger people to grow into those roles
 Continuity /Developmental
Theory
 Proposed by Havighurst and co-workers in reaction to the
disengagement theory
 States that personality remains the same and behavior
become more predictable as people age.
 The premise of the continuity theory is that elders adapt
to changes by using strategies to maintain continuity in
their lives. Strategies include
Forming links between new and old experiences.
Continuously linking with familiar environments
 Activity Theory
 Developed by Robert Havighurst in the 1960’s.
 Supports the importance of maintaining regular activities,
roles, and social pursuits.
 Successful aging and life satisfaction depend on maintaining
high level of activity
 Persons who achieve optimal age are those who stay active.
 As roles change, the individual finds substitute activities for
these roles.
 Modernization Theory
 Loss of power
 As a consequence of this advancement the argument
states that in traditional societies elderly played active
and vital roles while in modern industrial societies
elderly lost position, status and power.
 Modernization has resulted in a decline in small socially cohesive,
traditional communities.
 Individualization vs group support weakens the position of elderly.
Modernization stimulates diversification in beliefs.
Cognitive theories
 Cognitive theories of aging attempt to explain the nature of
age-related differences in cognition, the factors responsible
for these differences, and the mechanisms underlying why
age-related differences occur
OTHER THEORIES
 Role Theory

Role Theory: Our place in society

 (Rosow):The hypothesis: Our roles define who we are, determine
our self concept and affect our behavior. Roles become more vague
with aging and therefore there is a decrease in self concept.

 Because people are not socialized to ageing, this results in

role loss and uncertainty accompany the aging
 Symbolic Interactionism
 Symbolic Interactionism Hypothesis is: interactions of factors
like environment, relationship with others can affect how people
experience aging.
 Emphasis is on reciprocity with the social and physical
world as a measure of how we age.
 Self concept is affected by how people interact within their
social world i.e., define us and react to us.
 Can you give a case example of the above theory?
Age Stratification Theory
 Age Stratification Theory - This is a move away from the
individual with a focus on understanding groups of
older persons
 Examination of the relationship between older people
and historical events in their lives.
 Focus on structural, demographic and historical
characteristics tell us how different age groups respond to
social change.
Social Exchange Theory
 Hypothesis is: individual status is defined by the
balance between the contributions that people
make to society and the costs to support them.

 Variables that impact what society defines as “contribution”

are affected by age, gender, social class, education and
ethnicity.
Political Economy of Age

 Hypothesis is: Social class and the economic

infrastructure determine one’s access to resources.

 The dominant group in a society tries to hold on to their

position by perpetuating inequalities.Lack of social
infrastructure support for elderly of lower social economic
status.
Life Course

 The hypothesis is: The aging experience is shaped by

multiple, complex forces i.e.,history, cultural
meanings, socio economic status, cohort group,
social contexts.
 There is a diversity of role and role changes across the life
span which are very dynamic and multidirectional.
 From beginning to end of life we develop and change.
Social Phenominology and Social Constructionists

 The hypothesis is: Each one of us construct our own

social experience and reality.

 Thus the “reality” of aging is subject to change in

definition depending on who is doing the defining.
Social Justice Theory
 Identifies the type of support elderly are entitled to by virtue
of their contribution related sacrifices/responsibilities made
on behalf of society.
 Argues that the process of modernization cost the
elderly as a social category and that programs
developed to return their status to them are based
on social justice theory.

 What are some examples of social policy in aging that is

based on the social justice theoretical perspective?
 Social Justice Theory: An alternativeThis perspectives offers a
more
 pragmaticexplanation of how older people were
identifiedas a social category needing support
andassistance.
 Social Justice Theory (“just due” theory)
 ●
 Does not focus on what elderly contribute or the
positionthey hold.
 ●
 Focus is on the contribution that elderly have made tosociety
over a lifetime.
Labeling Theory
 (Howard S. Becker)that
deviance is not inherent to an
act, but instead focuses on the
linguistic tendency of
majorities to negatively label
minorities or those seen as
deviant from norms.
 The theory is concerned with
how the self-identity and
behavior of individuals may be
determined or influenced by
the terms used to describe or
classify them
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