Geometric Design of Roads

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
ROADS
Dr. Shriniwas Arkatkar
Mumbai-Pune Expressway
Mumbai-Pune Old status

Topography Affects Geometric Design
Topography Affects Geometric Design
Kathipara Interchange, Chennai
Introduction
 Geometric design is an important aspect of highway
design
 Visible dimensions of roadway
 Different elements in geometric design of roads and
highways
 The safe, efficient and economic operation is governed
by the good geometric design standards
 The design engineers has to see the following aspects:
1. Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility :
Volume and composition of traffic should be the basis of
design
Geometric Design of Highways

Introduction
2. Faulty geometrics are costly (rectification of errors)
3. The design should be consistent (standards should be
compatible with each other)
4. The design should have all the aspects (signs, markings,
proper lighting, intersections, etc.)
5. The highway should be considered as an integral part of
environment
6. The design selection : initial cost of construction, total
transportation cost and road user cost should be minimized.
7. Safety should be built into the design elements
8. The design should enable all road users (motor vehicles,
animal drawn vehicles, cyclist and pedestrians)

Buses
Trucks
Light Commercial Vehicles
Cars
Motorised-Two Wheelers
Motorised-Three Wheelers
Bicycles
Tricycles
Animal Drawn Vehicles
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS
Deals with visible dimensions of a roadway and is dictated by:
o Requirements of traffic
o Horizontal and vertical alignments
o Sight distances
o Cross-section components
o Lateral and vertical clearances
o Intersection treatment
o Control of access
Elements involved in Geometric
Design of Highways
 Cross sectional elements
 Width of pavement, formation and land, the surface
characteristics and cross slope of pavement
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal curves, vertical curves, intersections
governs the safety of highways
 Horizontal alignment details
 Change in road direction, type of horizontal curve,
superelevation, extra pavement width, transition
curves

Elements involved in Geometric
Design of Highways …
 Vertical alignment details
 The gradients and vertical curves
 Design of road intersections needs adequate
knowledge of traffic engineering
 Summary:
 Highway geometrics are greatly influenced by the

topography, locality, traffic characteristics and the
requirements of design speed
 The factors which control the geometric design
requirements are speed, road user and vehicular
characteristics, design traffic, traffic capacity and
benefit-cost considerations
Design Controls and Criteria
 Design speed
 Topography
 Traffic factors
 Design hourly volume and capacity
 Environmental and other factors

Design speed
 Important for economic operation and safety

o Considerable variation in speed depending on drivers and kind
of vehicle.
o Value selected should accommodate nearly all demands and
should not fail under severe or extreme cases
o Design speed is determined for design and correlation of
physical features of highway that influence vehicle operation
o Maximum safe speed that can be maintained when conditions
are so favorable that design features of highway govern.
o Design speed must be correlated with terrain conditions and
highway class.
Suggested design speeds in kmph for rural
highways
Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

R M R M R M R M
NH and SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
R: Ruling
M: Minimum
Suggested design speeds in kmph for urban
streets in India
Arterial………………………. 80
Sub-arterial ………………… 60
Collector street ……………. 50
Local street ………………… 30
Traffic
 Traffic volume indicates level of service for which highway is
being planned and directly affects width, alignment, grades.
 Design Hour Traffic Volume: Unit of measuring traffic volume

is Annual Average Daily Traffic volume (AADT).
 It is equal to the total annual volume of traffic divided by the

number of days in a year.
 It is easy to calculate when continuous traffic count is done

at a point on the highway.
 AADT does not help in geometric design as it does not

reflect monthly, weekly, daily or hourly variations of traffic
Traffic…
 Commonly used unit is 30th Highest Hourly Volume
(30HV).
 Defined as the hourly volume that is exceeded by 29

hourly volumes during a year.
 In American conditions: 30HV is about 15% of AADT on

Rural Highways and 8-12% on urban streets.
 For Indian roads 8-10% of AADT has been suggested as

30HV.
Directional Distribution of Traffic
 For 2-lane highways, design hour volume is the total
traffic in both directions of travel
 For highways with more than 2 lanes, it is desirable to

know directional distribution
 If not available, 67% of total traffic in one direction for

design purposes.
 Need to consider both morning and evening peak traffic

volume
Traffic Composition
 Traffic is heterogeneous in character and consists of fast
driven cars, trucks, buses, animal drawn vehicles.
 Passenger car units (PCU) or Passenger Car
Equivalents (PCEs)
 PCU for different vehicles do not remain constant for all
times. Important factors which contribute in determining
PCU are:
 Average length and width of vehicle
 Average speed of vehicle
 Average gap both transverse and lateral distance
between vehicles
PCU for Rural Conditions in India
Passenger car, pick-up van, auto-rickshaw …………… 1.0

Motor-cycles, scooters …………………………………... 0.5
Agricultural tractor, Light Commercial Vehicle ………… 1.5
Truck or Bus ………………………………………………. 3.0
Tractor-trailer, Agricultural tractor-trailer ………………. 4.5
Cycle Rickshaw …………………………………………… 2.0
Hand cart ………………………………………………….. 3.0
Horse-drawn vehicle ……………………………………… 4.0
Bullock cart …………………………………………… 6.0-8.0
Design Controls
Topography
Various design elements is related to topographical features.
Terrain is classified by means of cross-slope of the country
i.e. slope approximately perpendicular to the CL of the
highway location.
Terrain classification % slope of country

Level 0 to 10
Rolling 10 to 25
Mountainous 25 to 60
Steep Greater than 60
Curvature and Longitudinal Profile
Average Curvature (CV)

= Ф1+ Ф2+ Ф3…./ Dist. In km (degrees/km)
Øn
Ø1
A
h2
Ø2
Curvature and Longitudinal Profile
Longitudinal Profile (RS)

= h1+h2+h3….. hn (metres)/ Distance in km
(m/km)

Classification according to Road
Users Study
Terrain classification Rise and fall Curvature
(m/km) (Deg/km)
Plain
(a) Low curvature 0-15 0-50
(b) High curvature 0-15 above 51
Rolling
(a) Low curvature 16-30 0-100
(b) High curvature 16-30 above 101
Hilly
(a) Low curvature Over 31 0-200
(b) High curvature Over 31 above 201
Future Traffic Estimates
 Design year
 A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design
 The future traffic estimates should include :

 Current traffic : Existing and attracted (diverted)
 Generated traffic
 Diverted traffic
 Induced traffic
 Development traffic

Design Vehicle Dimensions
 It is a selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions,

operating characteristics of which are used to establish
highway design controls.
 IRC standard: Single unit truck, Semi-trailer, Truck-trailer

combination
 Selection of design vehicle is governed by the type and

volume of traffic expected to use the highway.
 Expressway: Largest design vehicle

 Streets and junctions: Passenger car as design vehicle
Width of Vehicle
36
 Affects the width of lane
Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Length of Vehicle
37
Car : 5.8 m
Single Unit with 2 axles : 10.67 m
Single Unit with more than 2 axles: 12.19 m
Tractor combination: 15.24 m
Tractor-trailor combination: 18.29 m
Affects:
Design of bridges
Extra widening at curves
Parking
Overtaking Sight Distance
Design of valley curves

Height of Vehicle
38
Car : 1.5 n to 2 m
Single deck bus 3.81 m
Double deck bus : 4.72 m
Affects
Clearance for overhead
railway bridge
Subway
Design of overhead
structures
Parking lots

Weight of Vehicle
39
 Design axle load = 8.2 t

 Legal axle load = 10.2 t
 The gross load of any vehicle or combination of vehicles
should not exceed the value given by an expression:
W  1525( L  7.3)  14.7 L 2
 Where is dist between extreme axles.

 When L< 2.44 m , the gross weight of vehicle should not
exceed 1415.5 kg.

Load Distribution in Vehicles
40
One third of the vehicle

weight on front axle
two third of the vehicle

weight on rear axle

Minimum Turning Path
passenger car
Minimum turning path is

defined by the outer
trace of the front
overhang and the path
of the inner rear wheel.
Highway Capacity
 Maximum no. of vehicles which has a reasonable
expectation of passing over a section (in either one
direction or both directions) during a given time period
under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
 Maximum: Maximum volume at which traffic flow is likely

to continue without break down and serious congestion
 No. of vehicles: expressed in PCUs
 Reasonable expectations: capacity can not be

determined precisely because of many variables that
affect traffic flow.

Highway Capacity..
 One direction versus two directions: On multi-lane facilities,
traffic in one direction flows independently from that in the
other. On two-lane roads there are interactions between
traffic moving in two different directions.
 Time period: Traffic volumes and capacity are usually

expressed as vehicles per hour. However, flow is not uniform
over time and thus volume and capacity are stated for shorter
period (such as 5 or 15min)
 Variation within an hour is expressed by a Peak Hour Factor

(PHF), which is always less than or equal to 1.
Highway Capacity..
 PHF is the quotient of the hourly volume divided by the
shorter-period volume multiplied by the no. of periods in an
hour.
 If hourly volume = 1500; Highest 5-min vol.= 150
 Then; PHF = 1500/ (150x12) = 0.83
 Prevailing roadway and traffic conditions:
 Includes physical features that affect capacity such as lane

and shoulder width, sight distance and grades
 Prevailing traffic conditions reflect changes in the

characteristics of traffic stream (% of truck, bus etc.)
Highway Capacity..
 Spacing and Headway:
 Spacing (s) is the distance between successive vehicles in a

traffic stream as measured from front bumper to front
bumper.
 Headway (h): corresponding time between successive

vehicles as they pass a point on a roadway.
 Clearance: Is the clear distance between two vehicles in

meter.
 Gap: Corresponding time in sec.

Highway Capacity..
 Average density (k), veh/km
 Average headway (h), sec/veh.
 Average flow rate (q), veh/hour
 Freeway (Expressway) capacity
 Divided highway facility having 2 or more lanes in each
direction for the exclusive use of traffic with full control of
access and egress.
 Capacity is the maximum sustained rate of flow in vehicles
per hour at which traffic can pass a point or uniform segment
of highway under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

Freeway Example in USA

Expressway Example in India

Highway Capacity..
 A set of base conditions are:
 3.65m lane width
 1.8m shoulder clearance between edge of travel lane and nearest
obstacle
 Only passenger cars in traffic stream
 10 or more lanes
 Interchange spacing of 3.2km or more
 Level terrain with grade not greater than 2%
 Driver population: regular drivers
 Base conditions represent high operating level with a free
flow speed of 112km or above
 Prevailing roadway and traffic conditions will in turn affect
free-flow speed.
Speed vs. Flow
Sf
Free Flow Speed
Uncongested Flow
Speed (mph)
Sm
Optimal flow,
Congested Flow Flow (veh/hr) capacity, vm
Highway Capacity..

Highway Capacity..

Levels of Service
 LOS A
 Free-flow operation
From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 LOS B
 Reasonably free flow
 Ability to maneuver is only
slightly restricted
 Effects of minor incidents still
easily absorbed
Levels of Service
 LOS C
 Speeds at or near FFS
 Freedom to maneuver is noticeably
restricted
 Queues may form behind any
significant blockage.

 LOS D
 Speeds decline slightly with
increasing flows
 Density increases more quickly
 Freedom to maneuver is more
noticeably limited
 Minor incidents create queuing
Levels of Service
 LOS E
 Operation near or at capacity
 No usable gaps in the traffic
stream
 Operations extremely volatile
 Any disruption causes queuing

 LOS F
 Breakdown in flow
 Queues form behind
breakdown points
 Demand > capacity
Highway Capacity..

Free Flow Speed
 Free flow speed is the average speed of vehicles on a facility
when drivers tend to drive at desired speed and not
constrained by control delay.
 It can be measured as the mean speed of passenger cars
during low to moderate flows (1300 passenger cars/hour/lane)
 All studies have shown that speeds on specific segments of
freeways are virtually constant:
 1300 veh/hr./lane: 112kmph
 1450…………….: 104kmph
 1600 …………...: 96kmph
 1750……………; 88kmph
Capacity Values (HCM 2000, USA)
Capacity of 2400 pc/hr./lane is achieved at 112 kmph

……………2350……………………………104 kmph
……………..2300…………………………… 96 kmph
……………..2250…………………………… 88 kmph
Capacity flow may occur at speeds ranging 80-85kmph

Level of Service (LOS)
 Design service volume related to a group of desirable
operating conditions.
 Characterizes the operating conditions on the facility in terms
of:
o Traffic performance related to speed and travel time
o Freedom to maneuver
o Traffic interruptions
o Comfort and convenience
o Operating cost of vehicles
 All these parameters depend on density of vehicles and
accordingly level of services have been defined:
 Level of service ranges between A (least congested) and E
(most congested)
Level of Service Criteria
Densities used to define level of
service:
LOS PC/km/lane
A …………. 0-7
B …………. 8-11
C …………. 12-16
D …………. 17-22
E ………….. 23-28
F ………….. > 28
Highway Geometric Design Elements
• Cross sectional elements

• Sight distances
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Intersection elements
Sight Distance Elements
• Stopping sight distance

• Overtaking sight distance
Stopping sight distance
 Highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle

results in safe operation.
 Distance along road surface at which a driver has visibility of
objects, stationary or moving, at a specified height above
carriage way is known as sight distance.
 Stopping sight distance is the distance required by a driver of
a vehicle travelling at a given speed to bring her/his vehicle
to stop after an object on the roadway become visible.
 Stopping sight distance is made up of two components:
 distance travelled during perception and brake reaction time
 Distance travelled during the time brakes are under

application till the vehicle stops.
Stopping sight distance…
 Perception and brake reaction time depend upon factors
such as: age, sex, alertness, visibility etc.
 IRC suggests 2.5sec a reasonable value for perception
and brake reaction time.
 Thus distance travelled during perception and brake
reaction time is:
d1 = v t
= 0.278 V t = 0.278 V x (2.5) = 0.695 V
d1 = distance travelled in m
v = speed in m/sec
V = speed in kmph
t = perception and reaction time = 2.5 sec
Stopping sight distance…
 Braking distance is the distance required for a

moving vehicle to stop after application of brakes:
d2 = V2 / 254f
d2 = braking distance in metres
V = speed in kmph
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction between tyre and
the pavement (assumed to vary between 0.40 at
20kmph and 0.35 at 100kmph)
Stopping sight distance = d1 + d2
Stopping sight distance as per IRC
Design speed in kmph Safe stopping sight distance (metres)

20 ……………………………………… 20
25 ……………………………………… 25
30 ……………………………………… 30
40 ……………………………………… 45
50 ……………………………………… 60
60 ……………………………………… 80
65 ……………………………………… 90
80 ……………………………………… 120
100 ………………………………………180
Stopping sight distance as per IRC
 In case of grade, the stopping sight distance is adjusted

as:
 d2 = V2/ (254 (f ± 0.01 G)
 G = longitudinal grade in percent.
 Grade correction should not be applied on undivided
roads with two-way traffic, but must be considered for
divided highways which have independently designed
profiles.
 For calculation of safe stopping sight distance consider:
 Height of the driver’s eyes: 1.2m
 Height of the object: 0.15m
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
Lag Distance Braking Distance
Distance Travelled during Distance Travelled after

Reaction Time application of brakes
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
100
90
SPEED, KMPH
80
70
60
50 Lag Distance
40
Braking Distance
30
20
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00 200.00
DISTANCE, M
Braking: Practical Application
 Braking distance
2
v
Db 
2 g ( f  0.01n)
Coefficient of friction, f, between tires and pavement is not constant
during this process
f is inversely proportional to the speed
What should be the value of f in order to decide the speed to avoid

collision
70
Coefficient of friction (f)
 type of pavement design (wbm, cc, bituminous)
 type of tyre (bald, thread)
 speed
 extent of brake application
 load, tyre pressure
 temperature and conditions of tyre and pavement

71
Speed Computations in Accidents
 Practical application of braking distance
 Length of skid marks Db is used to calculate the speed
when the tyres are locked
 Db = Average length from skid marks
 Calculation of f (sand patch method, skid resistance tester)
2
vt
Dt 
2 g ( f  0.01n)
 How to calculate the v ?

72
LOCATIONS WHERE SIGHT DISTANCES PLAY
MAJOR ROLE
 INTERSECTIONS
 HORIZONTAL CURVES
 VERTICAL CURVES
 SIGNS AND SIGNAL LOCATIONS
CONFLICT POINT
INADEQUATE VISIBILITY - BAD INTERSECTION DESIGN

FLARING IMPROVES
VISIBILITY
VEGETATION BLOCKING THE SIGHT ON A HORIZONTAL
CURVE
SIGHT DISTANCES AT VERTICAL CURVES ARE
AFFECTED BY GRADIENT. FLATTER SLOPES
PROVIDE HIGHER VISIBILITY
SPEED BREAKER AHEAD SIGN - LOCATION
Overtaking sight distance on
two-lane two-way highways:
 Overtaking sight distance on two-lane two-way highways:
 Overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed which is
16kmph less than the design speed of road
 Overtaking vehicle reduces speed and trails behind
overtaken vehicle
 Overtaking vehicle follows the vehicle ahead to perceive
the clear road ahead before beginning overtaking operation
 Overtaking is done by accelerating to the designed speed
and hurriedly returning to its own lane
 When overtaking vehicle returns to its lane, it arrives
alongside an oncoming vehicle in the opposite lane.
 AASHTO suggests that certain clearance should be
available between two.
Important factors affecting OSD
 Speeds
 Distances
 Skill and Time
 Rate
 Road
 d1 = dist. travelled during the perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the right lane
 d2 = actual dist. covered by the overtaking vehicle during overtaking maneuver in T sec
 d3 = dist. between overtaking vehicle at the end of maneuver and the opposing vehicle
(clear length)
 d4 = distance travelled by an opposing vehicle at the design speed while the overtaking
maneuver is taking place in T sec.
 Sometimes in practice distance d4 is taken as 2/3rd of d2 on the reasoning that the
overtaking vehicle can always return to its lane if the driver sees an opposing vehicle.
 d1 = vb x t, where vb is the speed of the overtaken vehicle
and t may be taken as 2sec.
 Minimum distance between overtaking and overtaken
vehicles is a function of speed and may be considered as:
 s = (0.7 vb + 6) metre
 If time taken by A from A2 to A3 is T sec, dist. covered by B
during that time is:
 b = vb x T
 d2 = b + 2s
 Again, d2 = vbT + ½ a T2, where a = acceleration
 Equating them,
 T = √4s/a
 d2= vbT + 2s
 d4 = v x T
 AASHTO suggests a and d3 values based on speed as:
 Speed range in kmph
 50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110
 d3 30 55 75 90
 acceleration in km/hr/sec
 a 2.25 2.30 2.37 2.41
 IRC has simplified the calculation of overtaking sight distance assuming that
it takes about 9 to 14 sec for the overtaking manoeuvre.
 Additional 2/3rds of this value is added for the distance travelled by the
opposing vehicle:
Design of Overtaking Zones

Numerical
 The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and
40 km/h, respectively on a two way traffic road. If the
acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec2.
 Calculate safe overtaking distance

 Mention the minimum length of overtaking zone
 Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and sign posts

Visibility at Horizontal Curves

 On horizontal curves with obstructions on the inside, lateral
clearance to obtain sight distance is an important issue:
 Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve
 For pavements with two or more lanes, sight distance is

measured along the arc at the centre line of the inner lane.

 
2 2

Case I When sight distance is less than length of the curve
S<L (for two-lane road)
Angle subtended at the centre by the arc = α degrees
m = R – (R-n) cos α/2
Where
m = distance to obstruction from centre line of road
p = width of inner pavement lane
α = angle subtended at the centre by arc length S
Also, 360/ α = 2 π(R-n)/S

α /2 = 180 S/ 2 π(R-n)

Case II When S>L for two-lane road
m = R – (R-p/2) cos α/2 + (S-L)/2 sin α/2
Also, 360/ α = 2 π(R-n)/L

α /2 = 180 L/ 2 π(R-n)

Minimum set back distance : IRC

Numerical
 There is a horizontal curve of radius 400 m and length
200 m on this highway. Compute the set back distances
required from the centre line on the inner side of the
curve so as to provide for
A. Stopping sight distance of 90 m

B. Safe overtaking distance of 300 m
 The distance between the centre line of the road and

the inner lane is 1.9 m

Two-lane highway capacity
 Undivided with one lane for each direction
 Traffic operation is different
 Overtaking is possible based on oncoming traffic
 With increase in traffic volume, drivers must adjust travel
speed and ability to pass declines.
 Many two-lane highways connect major traffic

generators and also acts as major traffic carrier.
Two lane Roads in India

Parameters for measuring los
on two-lane highways
 % of time spent following (PTSF) represents the freedom to
maneuver, comfort and convenience of travel.
 Defined as the average percentage of travel time that

vehicles must travel in platoons behind slower vehicles due
to inability to pass. (It is difficult to measure)
 % of vehicles travelling with headways of less than 3sec at

representative location can be used as surrogate measure.
 Average travel speed reflects the mobility on a two-lane

highway. Calculated as the length of the highway segment
divided by average travel time of all vehicles traversing the
segment in both directions during a designated interval.
Base conditions
 Lane widths greater than or equal to 3.65m (12 ft.)

 Clear shoulder wider than or equal to 1.8m (6 ft)
 No “No passing zones” on the highway
 All passenger cars in the traffic stream
 No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or
turning vehicles
 Level terrain
 A 50/50 directional split of traffic
 Two-lane highways can be analyzed either as two-way

segments obtaining traffic performance measures for
both direction of travel combined or as directional
segments, with each directional travel separately.
Speed-Volume Relationship
PTSF Relationship
Los criteria (graphical) for two-
lane highways

Los criteria (tabular) for two-
lane highways

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• RADIUS OF CIRCULAR CURVE

• SUPER ELEVATION
• EXTRA WIDENING
• TRANSITION CURVES
Centrifugal force acting at a curve
Centre of Curve
Role of friction in resisting skid
CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE, P
Friction Friction
Weight, W
Overturning or toppling
h CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE, P
b
POINT ABOUT WHICH

OVERTURNING
OCCURS Weight, W
LIMITING CONDITION, IMPACT FACTOR P/W = b/2h

Transverse Skidding

PROVISION OF SUPER ELEVATION
Road Edge Road Edge
NORMAL ROAD SECTION ON A

STRAIGHT ROAD
Outer Inner
Edge Edge
Actual super elevation, E = e B

Analysis of Superelevation
Analysis of Superelevation..
 At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of
pavement we get:
 Dividing by Wcosθ we get:

This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, f = 0:15 and θ < 4o,
1-f tanθ ~ 1 and for small θ, tanθ ~ sin θ = E/B = e

 Three specic cases that can arise from equation are as follows:
1.If there is no friction due to some practical reasons, then f = 0 and
equation becomes
 This results in the situation where the pressure on the outer and
inner wheels are same; requiring very high super-elevation e.
2.If there is no super-elevation provided due to some practical
reasons, then e = 0 and equation becomes
 This results in a very high coefficient of friction.
3.If e = 0 and f = 0:15 then for safe traveling speed from equation is
given by
 where vb is the restricted speed.

 If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by the super-
elevation, frictional force will not be called into play (f=0)
and the super-elevation then provided is said to be
equilibrium super-elevation (pressure on inner and outer
wheels will be equal).
Values of coefficient of lateral friction

AASHTO recommends the following values:
Design speed (kmph): 50 65 80 100 120 130

Max. lateral friction: 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
IRC recommends a constant value of 0.15

 Maximum super-elevation values:
 IRC recommends for hilly areas: 0.07 for snow-bound

areas, 0.10 for areas not affected by snow
 All other cases, a value of 0.07 is considered maximum
 Minimum radii of curves:

V2/ 127R = e + f
R = V2/ 127 (e + f)
 Knowing e and f, it is possible to calculate the minimum
radius
Typical calculations
Minimum Radius of Curve ,R = V2/127( e + f )

If V= 50 KMPH, e = 0.07, f = 0.15
R = 89 m, say 90 m
Design of superelevation
Design of superelevation for mixed traffic conditions is complex
and thus the following steps are followed:
(i) Superelevation for 75% of design speed is calculated

neglecting the friction
e = (.75V)2 / 127R = V2 /225R

(ii) If calculated ‘e’ value is less than 0.07, the value thus obtained
is provided. If the value exceeds 0.07, provide maximum
superelevation of 0.07.
(iii) Check the coefficient of friction developed for maximum value
of ‘e’
f = (V2/ 127R – 0.07)
Design of superelevation…
If the value thus obtained is less than 0.15, superelevation
of 0.07 is safe for design.
Alternatively:
e + f = 0.07 + 0.15 = 0.22 = Va2 / 127R

Calculate safe allowable speed Va
If the allowable speed is higher than the design speed, then

design is adequate and provide “e” equal to 0.07
If speed is less than the design speed, “speed limit” is to be
introduced.
Attainment of Superelevation
Attainment of Superelevation…

METHODS OF ATTAINING SUPERELEVETION
1. Rotating the pavement with respect to inner

edge
If the rate of introduction of super elevation is 1 in N ,

required length = N.E
Preferred in flat terrain in high rainfall area, when the road is not taken
into embankment to avoid the drainage problem.
Vertical Profile

METHODS OF ATTAINING SUPERELEVETION
2. Rotating the pavement with respect to centre

line
E/2
E/2
If the rate of introduction of super elevation is 1 in N ,

required length = N.E / 2
Preferred when the road has significant gradient, when the road is
taken into embankment to avoid the drainage problem.
Vertical Profile

Overall width between Control Lines
Overall width between Building Lines

Set Set
Back
Road land width Back
Road way
Carriageway
Cross-sectional elements
Right-of-way
 Width of land secured and preserved in public interest for road
development purposes. It should be adequate to accommodate all
the elements that make-up cross-section of a road. Also space
should be available for future development.
Control line:
 represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building
activity in relation to a road. Building activity not totally banned
between the building line and control line, the nature of building is
controlled.
Building line:
 Line, on either side of a road, between which and the road, no
building activity is permitted.
Right-of-way (in metre)
Plain and rolling Mountainous and steep

Rural Urban Rural Urban
NH, SH 45 (30-60) (30) 30-60 24 20

MDR 25 (25-30) (20) 15-25 18 15
ODR 15 (15-25) (15) 12-20 15 12
VR 12 (12-18) (10) 10-15 9 9
Carriageway width
 Has profound influence on the capacity of a road. In
India, a single lane pavement is generally 3.75m wide; A
shoulder of 0.9m on either side is provided to facilitate
overtaking and crossing operations.
Single lane 3.75 m

Two lane, no
7.0 m
kerbs
Two lane,
7.5 m
raised kerbs
Intermediate
5.5 m
carriage
Multi-lane 3.5 m
Shoulders and Median
Shoulders:
 Portion of roadway intended for accommodation of stopped
vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and
surface courses.
 Current Indian practice for 2-lane roads suggested shoulder
width is 2.5m.
Median
 Longitudinal space separating dual carriage-ways. Functions
of medians are:
 Separate opposing traffic streams, Minimize head light glare
 Stopping area in case of emergency
 5m for rural highways (3m under restricted conditions)
 5m for urban is desirable, but 1.2m is acceptable.
Roadway width
Plain and rolling Mountainous and steep

NH and SH
Single lane 12.0 6.25
Two-lane 12.0 8.8
MDR 9.0 4.75
ODR
Single lane 7.5 4.75
Double lane 9.0
VR 7.5 4.0
RAIN WATER
NEED FOR CAMBER

Types of Camber
Surface Heavy Light

type rain rain
Concrete/
2% 1.7 %
Bituminous
Gravel/
3% 2.5 %
WBM
Earthen 4% 3.0 %

Camber
 Slope provided to road surface in the transverse direction
for draining off rain water from road surface.
 Usually it is provided on straight stretches by raising the
centre line of carriageway w.r.to edges forming a crown at
the centre line.
 At horizontal curves, surface drainage is effected by
raising outer edge of pavement w.r.to inner edge while
providing desired super-elevation.
Type of camber depends on:
 Type of pavement surface
 Amount of rainfall in the area
Camber is provided as parabolic, elliptic or straight line
shape.
Camber
 Parabolic or elliptic is provided so that profile is flat at

the middle and steeper towards edges. (Preferred by
fast moving vehicles as they have to frequently cross
the crown line during overtaking).
Road surface Recommended camber as per
IRC
Earth road 1 in 20 to 1 in 25
Gravel road 1 in 25 to 1 in 30
WBM 1 in 36 to 1 in 48
Bituminous surface 1 in 48 to 1 in 60
Cement concrete 1 in 60 to 1 in 72
Camber
 For straight edge camber, the wheel does not have full contact
when vehicle travels along centre-line.
 For parabolic, tyre contact is less at the edges
 Sometime, combined camber with parabolic central portion

and straight line camber at edges is provided.
EXTRA WIDENING ON CURVES
OFF TRACKING PROCESS

l
1. Off-tracking process
2. At higher speeds: outside path
3. Path traced by trailer unit
4. At curves outer side
5. Greater clearance at curves
(psychological)
6. Factors
1. Length of wheel base (l)
2. Radius of curve (R)
3. Psychological factor speed (v)
EXTRA WIDENING ON CURVES : Examples

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves

Widening of Pavement on Horizontal Curves
Wm = OC – OA = OB – OA = R2 – R1
OA2 = OB2 – BA2
R12 = R22 – l2
But R1 = R2 –wm
Thus wm = l2 / (2R2 –wm) = l2 /2R (approx.)

For, n number of lanes, widening is: n x wm
As per IRC:
Psychological widening, Wps = 0.1 V / √R
EXTRA WIDENING ON CURVES
OFF TRACKING PROCESS
Mechanical Widening = nl2/ 2 R
Psychological Widening = V /9.5 √R

NEED FOR A TRANSITION CURVE
Extra Widening
Normal section
B B
Section with
Super elevation
Extra Widening
A Transition curve
Circular Curve
B B
Normal section
Transition Curve
Section with
Super elevation
Straight Portion
IRC Recommendations
IRC specifications for extra widening:
Radius (m) ……. Upto 20 21-40 41-60 61-100 101-300

Extra width (m) .. 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6
(two-lane road)
One lane 0.9 0.6 0.6 nil nil

Transition curves
 When a vehicle travelling on a straight course enters a
curve of finite radius, it is subjected to centrifugal force
which causes discomfort to the passengers.
 To avoid, it is customary to provide transition curve at

the beginning of circular curve.
 Transition curves have radius of infinity at the end of

straight stretch, which gradually reduces to be equal to
the radius of the circular curve (where it begins)
 Transition portion is also used for the gradual application

of super-elevation and extra widening of pavement.
Types of Transition Curves

IRC recommends spiral
Length of transition curve
Three considerations:
(1) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should not
cause discomfort to drivers and passengers. If C is the
rate of change of acceleration,
C = v2 /Rc/ t = (v2/Rc)/(Ls/v) = v3 / Rc Ls
Thus Ls = 0.0215 V3 / CRc, where V is speed in kmph
According to IRC, C = 80/ (75 + V) m/sec3 [ 0.5<C<0.8]

Minimum and maximum values are 0.5 and 0.8 respectively
(2) Rate of change of super-elevation should be such as

not to cause higher gradients and unsightly
appearances. This may be kept at 1 in 150 for roads in
plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for roads in hilly
terrain, 1 in 100 for roads in built up areas.
E * N eN
Ls   (W  We ) E/2
2 2
E/2
Ls  E * N  eN (W  We )
E
 By empirical formula
 Case 1: For plain and rolling terrain

2.7V 2
Ls 
R
 Case 2: For mountainous and steep terrain
V2
Ls 
R

Vertical Alignment
• Gradients
• Summit curves
• Valley curves
Vertical Profile and central line
of the road

Gradients
Gradient is decided for designing the vertical curve.

 Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which to
design the vertical profile of a road. Cut and fill are balanced
accordingly. (Design Gradient)
 Flatter gradients may be preferred
 Selection of ruling gradient depends on type of terrain, length
of grade, speed, power of vehicle, horizontal curves.
 Vehicle with the same tractive effort would lose speed at
grades; speed would steadily decrease with increase in length
 With maximum pulling power, a vehicle would be able to
sustain the same speed even on long section only up to a
certain gradient
Gradients..
 Maximum power developed by the engine is equal to the
power required to overcome the resistance to motion on
the grade at a speed is the ruling gradient for the vehicle.
 Different kind of vehicles use the road
 IRC recommendations:
 1 in 30 on plain and rolling terrain
 1 in 20 on mountainous terrain
 1 in 16.7 on steep terrain
 Topography of a place compels adopting steeper
gradients known as limiting gradient. Length should be
restricted and must be provided after a gap.
Gradients..
 In some extra-ordinary situations, it may become
unavoidable to provide still steeper gradient, known as
exceptional gradient.
 Should be strictly limited to short stretches, not exceeding
100m at a stretch.
 Maximum length of ascending gradient which a loaded truck
can operate without undue reduction in speed is called
critical length of grade. (A reduction of speed of 25kmph may
be considered reasonable).
 For a flat terrain gradient needs to be provided for drainage
purposes.
 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drains; for inferior
surfaces I in 200 is desirable
Gradients…
Ruling Limiting Exceptional

Plain and rolling: 1 in 30 1 in 20 1 in 15*
Rolling 1 in 30 1 in 20 1 in 15*
Mountainous 1 in 20 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3*
Steep
(i) Up to 3000m above MSL
1 in 20 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3*
(ii) Above 3000m above MSL
1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3 1 in 12.5*
* For a distance not more than 100m at a stretch

Data Collection for 5% Upgrade on NH-4
Km
5.200
Google Image of
Km the Study Stretch
5.500
with 5% Upgrade
Km
5.700 Km
5.900
5 % Gradient on National
Highway No. 4 near Pune,
Maharashtra
Snapshot of the
Traffic Flow on
the Study Stretch
with 5% Upgrade
3.8% Upgrade on NH-4
Km 2.6
Km
Traffic Flow 2.8
Towards Pune
Km
3.0
Traffic Flow
Away from Pune
Towards
Satara near
Pune
Snapshot of 3.8 % Gradient

Speed-Distance Profiles on Upgrades
2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
90
90
2% - R 2 = 0.9986 3% - R 2 = 0.9982 4% - R 2 = 0.9979
2%-R2 = 0.9985 3%-R2 = 0.9973 4%-R2 = 0.9966 80
80
Average Speed (km/h)

2
5% - R = 0.994 6% - R 2 = 0.9955
5%-R2 = 0.9957 6%-R2 = 0.9945 70

70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Trucks Buses
2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6%
100 64
2%-R2 = 0.9969 3%-R2 = 0.998 4%-R2 = 0.9974
90 2% - R2 = 0.9979 4%- R2 = 0.9983 61
3% - R2 = 0.999

2 2
5%-R = 0.9927 6%-R = 0.9969
80
5% - R2 = 0.9997 6% - R2 = 0.9992 58
70 55
60
52
50
49
40
46
30
43
20
40
10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Cars Motorised Two-Wheelers

42
Grade compensation on
horizontal curves
 At horizontal curves, due to turning angle a curve resistance is
developed.
 If there is a horizontal curve in addition to gradient, there will be
increased resistance to fraction due to both gradient and curve.
 Thus gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss
of tractive effort due to curve.
 Reduction in grade is called Grade compensation
= (30+R)/R
 Subjective to a maximum value of 75/R, where R is radius in
metre
 Grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than
4% and grade compensation need not be eased beyond 4%
Types of vertical curves
SUMMITCURVE OR CREST CURVE
N = ANGLE OF DEVIATION
VALLEY CURVE OR SAG CURVE

N
Deviations in Summit Curves

Vertical Curves
 Vertical curves are provided:
 Gradual transition from one gradient to another without
discomfort to passengers
 Eliminate sudden humps and troughs
 Adequate visibility for stopping and overtaking
 If the total change in gradient from one tangent to

another does not exceed 0.5%, vertical curves can be
dispensed with
 Parabola is usually used for joining two tangents

Vertical Curves
Vertical Curves
L = length of parabolic summit curve
N = algebric difference in grade = N1 – (-N2) = N1 + N2
For a parabola, any point P on the curve at a distance of

X from T1 is at a vertical distance Y from the grade line.
From the property of parabola:
y = x2/C
Putting boundary conditions
C = 2L/N
Length of curve (L) > sight distance (S)

h1 = height of driver’s eye

h2 = height of object on the curve
S1 = horizontal distance between driver and apex of curve
S2 = horizontal distance between the object and apex of the
curve
L = NS2 / (√2h1 + √2h2)2
Putting h1 =1.2m and h2 = 0.15m
L = NS2/ 4.4
When sight distance (S) is > length of curve (L)
When sight distance (S) is > length of curve (L)
S = CD + DF + EC
= L/2 + h1/N1 + h2/ N2 = L/2 + h1/N1 + h2/ (N-N1)
For minimum S, dS/dN1 = 0
L = 2S – {2(√h1 + √h2)2} / N
Putting values of h1 and h2 as 1.2m and 0.15m respectively
L = 2S – 4.4/N
Minimum length of vertical curves
Design speed Min. grade change % Min. length of vertical

(kmph) not requiring vertical curve in m for higher
curve grade change values
35 1.5 15
40 1.2 20
50 1.0 30
65 0.8 40
80 0.6 50
100 0.5 60
Vertical Curves
EX: As ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a

descending gradient of 1 in 120. Design speed:
80kmph. Design summit curve to have overtaking sight
distance of 470m
N = 1/100 – (-1/120) = 11/600

If L > OSD
L = NS2/9.6 = 422m, which is less than OSD of 470
If L < OSD
L = 2S -9.6/N = 417m which is less than 470
Thus, length of summit curve is 417m

Design factors in valley curves
• Centrifugal acceleration
• Headlight sight distance
• Angle of deviation
• Speed
Types of Valley Curves

Details of Valley Curve

Length of sag curves based on rider comfort
 Length of sag curves are decided based on rider comfort

and headlight sight distance.
 Radial acceleration α = v2 / R in m/sec2
= V2 /13R where V is in kmph
L is the length of the valley curve.
 Radian acceleration changes from 0 to α in a length of L/2

 Rate of change of radial acceleration
 C = V2/ 13R divided by (L x 3.6)/ 2V = V3 / 23.4LR m/sec3
 For a transition curve spiral or cubic parabola
 L = (V3/2 N1/2) / 2.65
Length of sag curves based on
headlight sight distance.
 At night roadway
ahead is illuminated
by head light of the
vehicle
 h = height of head
light (assumed 0.75m)
 Beam of light inclined
an at an angle α
(assumed 1 degree)
Length of sag curves L>S
Length of sag curves
Stopping sight distance when L>S
Sight distance is minimum when vehicle is at

lowest point
L = NS2 / (1.5 +0.035S)

Length of sag curves L< S
Length of sag curves
Stopping sight distance when L< S
Vehicle is considered at the start of the valley
curve
L = 2S – (1.5 + 0.035 S)/N

Geometric Design of Roads

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Geometric Design of Roads

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF

Mumbai-Pune Old status

Geometric Design of Highways

Geometric Design of Highways

Deals with visible dimensions of a roadway and is dictated by:

o Lateral and vertical clearances

Geometric Design of Highways

 Highway geometrics are greatly influenced by the

 Design hourly volume and capacity

 Environmental and other factors

Geometric Design of Highways

 Important for economic operation and safety

Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep

 Design Hour Traffic Volume: Unit of measuring traffic volume

 It is equal to the total annual volume of traffic divided by the

 It is easy to calculate when continuous traffic count is done

 AADT does not help in geometric design as it does not

 Defined as the hourly volume that is exceeded by 29

 In American conditions: 30HV is about 15% of AADT on

 For Indian roads 8-10% of AADT has been suggested as

 For highways with more than 2 lanes, it is desirable to

 If not available, 67% of total traffic in one direction for

 Need to consider both morning and evening peak traffic

Passenger car, pick-up van, auto-rickshaw …………… 1.0

Terrain classification % slope of country

Average Curvature (CV)

Longitudinal Profile (RS)

Geometric Design of Highways

 A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design

 The future traffic estimates should include :

Geometric Design of Highways

 It is a selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions,

 IRC standard: Single unit truck, Semi-trailer, Truck-trailer

 Selection of design vehicle is governed by the type and

 Expressway: Largest design vehicle

 Affects the width of lane

Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Introduction to Traffic Engineering

 Design axle load = 8.2 t

W  1525( L  7.3)  14.7 L 2

 Where is dist between extreme axles.

Introduction to Traffic Engineering

One third of the vehicle

two third of the vehicle

Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Minimum turning path is

 Maximum: Maximum volume at which traffic flow is likely

 No. of vehicles: expressed in PCUs

 Reasonable expectations: capacity can not be

Geometric Design of Highways

 Time period: Traffic volumes and capacity are usually

 Variation within an hour is expressed by a Peak Hour Factor

 If hourly volume = 1500; Highest 5-min vol.= 150

 Then; PHF = 1500/ (150x12) = 0.83

 Prevailing roadway and traffic conditions:

 Includes physical features that affect capacity such as lane

 Prevailing traffic conditions reflect changes in the

 Spacing (s) is the distance between successive vehicles in a

 Headway (h): corresponding time between successive

 Clearance: Is the clear distance between two vehicles in

 Gap: Corresponding time in sec.

Geometric Design of Highways