CHM 138

BASIC CHEMISTRY
 SUBTOPICS
i) Electrolytic properties

ii) Acids and bases

- properties of acids
- properties of bases
- roles of water to show properties of acids
- roles of water to show properties of alkali
- definition of acids and bases: Arrhenius,
Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis
- strength of acids and bases
iii) Concentration of solution
- Preparing a solution of known solution
- dilution of solutions

iv) pH- a measure of acidity

- calculation of pH for strong acids
- calculation of pH for strong bases

v) Volumetric analysis
- titration
- acids-bases titration
- pH profile of the titration (titration curve)
 ELECTROLYTIC PROPERTIES

• An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water,

results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
• A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved, results in
a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

 Method to distinguish electrolytes and
nonelectrolytes
» A pair of inert electrodes (Cu or Pt) is immersed in a
beaker of water.
» To light the bulb, electric current must flow from one
electrode to the other, thus completing the circuit.
» By adding NaCl (ionic compound), the bulb will glow.
» NaCl breaks up into Na+ and Cl- ions when dissolves in
water.
» Na+ are attracted to the negative electrode.
» Cl- are attracted to the positive electrode.
» The movement sets up an electric current that is
equivalent to the flow of electrons along a metal wire.
 Strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes
• Strong electrolyte:
– 100% dissociation (breaking up of compound into
cations and anions

NaCl (s) H2O Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

• Weak electrolyte:
– not completely dissociated
CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

A reversible reaction. The reaction can occur in

both directions.
Classification of solutes in aqueous solution
Why nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity?

Reason: No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution.

H2 O
C6H12O6 (s) C6H12O6 (aq)
 ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS BASES

Baking soda
Vinegar
(NaHCO3)
(ethanoic acid)
Orange (citric acid)
 PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
• Have a sour taste.
- Vinegar owes its taste to acetic acid (ethanoic acid).
- Citrus fruits contain citric acid.

• Cause color changes in plant dyes.

• React with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas.

2HCl (aq) + Mg (s) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

• React with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce carbon

dioxide gas.
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
• Aqueous acid solutions conduct electricity.
 PROPERTIES OF BASES

• Have a bitter taste.

• Feel slippery. Many soaps contain bases.
• Cause color changes in plant dyes.
• Aqueous base solutions conduct electricity.
 ROLES OF WATER TO SHOW
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
» Anhydrous pure acid (without water) does not show
acidic properties.
» In dry form, acids exist as neutral covalent molecules.
» Dry acids do not dissociate to form hydrogen ion (H+).
» When a pure acid is dissolved in water, it will show the
properties of acids.
» This is because acids will dissociate in water to form H+
or hydroxonium/hydronium ion, H3O+ which are free to
move.
» For example:
i) HCl in liquid methylbenzene (organic solvent) - does
not show acidic properties.
ii) HCl in water – show acidic properties
 ROLES OF WATER TO SHOW
PROPERTIES OF ALKALI
• Dry base does not show alkaline properties.
• A base in dry form, contains hydroxide ions (OH-) that are
not free to move. Thus, the alkaline properties cannot be
shown.
• In the presence of water, bases can dissociate in water to
form hydroxide ions, OH-, which are free to move. Thus,
alkaline properties are shown.
• For example:
i) ammonia in tetrachlomethane (organic solvent) – do not
show alkaline properties
ii) ammonia in water – show alkaline properties
DEFINITION OF ACIDS AND BASES

DEFINITION OF ACIDS
AND BASES

Brønsted-
Arrhenius Lewis
Lowry
DEFINITION OF ACID AND BASE BY ARRHENIUS

 Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces H+ (hydrogen ion)

or hydronium ion (H3O+) in water

 Arrhenius base is a substance that produces OH- in water

 Examples of acid:
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq)
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
nonmetal oxides + H2O acid

 Examples of bases:
NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
N2H4 (aq) + H2O N2H5+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
metal oxides + H2O bases
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq)

* Limited only to aqueous solutions

 DEFINITION OF ACID AND BASE BY BRØNSTED-LOWRY

• A Brønsted acid is a proton donor.

• A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor.
• Example:

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

acid base acid base

• HCl is a acid because it donates proton to H2O.

• H2O is a base because it accepts proton from HCl.

• A Brønsted acid must contain at least one ionizable proton!

» Conjugate acid-base pair:
i) Conjugate base of a Brønsted acid
- the species that remains when one proton has been
removed from the acid.

ii) Conjugate acid

- addition of a proton to a Brønsted base.
Example 1:
HCl (aq) +H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
acid1 base2 acid2 base1
• Cl- is a conjugate base of HCl and HCl is a conjugate acid of Cl-
• H2O is a base conjugate of H3O+ and H3O+ is a acid conjugate of
H2O
Example 2:
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
base1 acid2 acid1 base2

• subscripts 1 and 2 = two conjugate acid-base pair

 Example:
Identify each of the following species as a Brønsted acid, base, or
both (amphoteric).
(a) HI (b) CH3COO- (c) H2PO4-

(a) HI
HI (aq) H+ (aq) + I- (aq) Brønsted acid

(b) CH3COO-
CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq) CH3COOH (aq) Brønsted base

(c) H2PO4-
H2PO4- (aq) H+ (aq) + HPO42- (aq) Brønsted acid
H2PO4- (aq) + H+ (aq) H3PO4 (aq) Brønsted base
* Amphoteric or amphiprotic substance is one that can react as
either an acid or base
Example:
Write the formula of conjugate base for the following compound
or ion.
a) HBr
b) NH4+

Solution:
a) HBr is a Brønsted acid (proton donor)
HBr H+ + Br -

Conjugate base

b) NH4+ is a Brønsted acid (proton donor)

NH4+ H+ + NH3

Conjugate base
Example:
Write the formula of conjugate acid for the following ion.
a) CH3COO-
b) CIO2-

Solution:
a) CH3COO- is a Brønsted base (proton acceptor)

CH3COO- + H+ CH3COOH

Conjugate acid

b) ClO2- is a Brønsted base (proton acceptor)

ClO2- + H+ HCIO2

Conjugate acid
 DEFINITION OF ACID AND BASE BY LEWIS

• A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons.

• A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons.

•• ••
H+ + OH-
••
H O H
•• ••
acid base
H H
+
H+ +
••

N H H N H
H H
acid base
Examples of Lewis Acids and Bases reactions:

F H F H
a)
+

••
F B N H F B N H
F H F H
acid base

b) Ag+ (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) Ag(NH3)2+ (aq)

acid base
c) Cd+ (aq) + 4I- (aq) CdI2-4 (aq)
acid base
d) Ni (s) + 4CO (g) Ni(CO)4 (g)
acid base
 STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES
 Acids:
i) Strong acids:
- Acids that completely ionized in solution.
- Example:
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

ii) Weak acids

- Acids that incompletely ionized in solution
- Example:
CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)
Some common strong and weak acids
 Bases:
i) Strong bases:
- Bases that completely ionized in solution.
- Example:
NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

ii) Weak bases

- bases that incompletely ionized in solution
- Example:
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
 ACIDS AND BASES AS ELECTROLYTES
» Strong acids such as HCl and HNO3 are strong electrolytes,
while weak acid such as acetic acid (CH3COOH) is a weak
electrolyte.

o Strong Acids are strong electrolytes

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

HClO4 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + ClO4- (aq)

H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

o Weak Acids are weak electrolytes

HF (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)

HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + NO2- (aq)

HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)

H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

o Strong Bases are strong electrolytes
H2 O
NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
H2 O
KOH (s) K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
H2O 2+
Ba(OH)2 (s) Ba (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

o Weak Bases are weak electrolytes

F- (aq) + H2O (l) OH- (aq) + HF (aq)
NO2- (aq) + H2O (l) OH- (aq) + HNO2 (aq)
 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION
• The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
• Common units of concentration:
- Molarity or molar concentration: Number of moles of
solute per liter of solution.
- symbol: M (mol/L)

moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution
Example 1:
Calculate the molarity of 9.00 g sodium chloride in 88.4 mL of
solution.
Answer:
1) Convert volume from mL to L.
= 88.4 mL x 1 L
1000 mL
= 0.0884 L
2) Calculate moles of NaCl.
mole NaCl = mass NaCl
Molar mass NaCl
= 9.00 g
(22.99 + 35.46) g/mol
= 0.154 mol
3) Molarity of NaCl solution = mole
L of solution
= 0.154 mol = 1.74 mol/L @ 1.74 M
0.0884 L
Example 2:
Calculate mass of KI that is required to make 500 mL of
a 2.80 M KI solution.
Answer:
1) Convert volume from mL to L.
= 500 mL x 1 L
1000 mL
= 0.5 L

2) Calculate moles of KI
Molarity = mol
L of solution
mol = Molarity x L of solution
= 2.80 mol x 0.5 L
L
= 1.4 mol
3) Calculate mass of KI

mass KI = mol x Molar mass KI

mass KI = 1.4 mol x (39.10 + 126.9)g/mol
= 232.4 g
Preparing a Solution of Known
Concentration
Exersice 1:
A chemist needs to add 3.81 g of glucose (C6H12O6) to a
reaction mixture. Calculate the volume in mililiters of a
2.53 M glucose she should use for the addition.
 Dilution of Solutions
 Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less
concentrated solution from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf
Two KMnO4 solutions of different
concentrations
Example:
1) Show how would you prepare 100.0 mL of 0.200 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3.

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 M Mf = 0.200 M Vf = 0.1 L Vi = ? L

MfVf 0.200 M x 0.1 L

Vi = = = 0.00500 L = 5.00 mL
Mi 4.00 M

Procedure:
Dilute 5.00 mL of HNO3 with distilled water to a total
volume of 100.0 mL (volumetric flask 100 mL).
 pH- A MEASURE OF ACIDITY
• pH – the negative logarithm of the hydrogen in
concentration (in mol/L)

pH = -log [H+]

Solution Is At 250C
neutral [H+] = [OH-] [H+] = 1 x 10-7 pH = 7
acidic [H+] > [OH-] [H+] > 1 x 10-7 pH < 7
basic [H+] < [OH-] [H+] < 1 x 10-7 pH > 7
Other important relationships

pOH = -log [OH-]

[H+][OH-] = Kw = 1.0 x 10-14
-log [H+] – log [OH-] = 14.00

pH + pOH = 14.00

pH Meter
The pHs of some common fluids
Example 1:
Calculate the pH of a juice having a hydrogen ion
concentration of 0.76 M.
Answer:
pH = -log [H+]
pH = - log (0.76)
= 0.12
Example 2:
The pH of rainwater collected in a certain region of the
northeastern United States on a particular day was 4.82.
Determine the H+ ion concentration of the rainwater.
Answer:
pH = -log [H+]
[H+] = 10-pH = 10-4.82 = 1.5 x 10-5 M
Example 3:
The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is
2.5 x 10-7 M. Determine the pH of the blood.
Answer:
1) Calculate pOH of the blood sample:
pOH = -log [OH-]
= -log (2.5 x 10-7)
= 6.60
2) Calculate pH using formula, pH + pOH = 14.00

pH + pOH = 14.00
pH = 14.00 – pOH
= 14.00 – 6.60
= 7.40
 Calculation pH for strong acids
Example 1:
Calculate the pH of a 2 x 10-3 M HNO3 solution.

*** HNO3 is a strong acid – 100% dissociation.

HNO3 (aq) H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

Initial (M): 2 x 10-3 0 0
Final (M): 0 2 x 10-3 2 x 10-3

pH = -log [H+]
= -log(2 x 10-3)
= 2.70
Example 2:
Calculate the pH of a 1.5 x 10-3 M H2SO4 solution.

*** H2SO4 is a strong acid – 100% dissociation.

H2SO4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)

Initial (M): 1.5 x 10-3 0 0
Final (M): 0 2(1.5 x 10-3) 1.5 x 10-3
= 3.0 x 10-3

pH = -log [H+]
= -log(3 x 10-3)
= 2.52
 Calculation pH for strong bases
Example 1:
Calculate the pH of a 2.1 x 10-2 M NaOH solution.
* NaOH is a strong base – 100% dissociation.

NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Initial (M): 2.1 x 10-2 0 0
Final (M): 0 2.1 x 10-2 2.1 x 10-2

1) Calculate pOH: 2) Calculate pH:

pOH = -log [OH-] pH + pOH = 14
= -log(2.1 x 10-2) pH = 14 – pOH
= 1.68 = 14 – 1.68
= 12.32
 Example 2:
Calculate pH of a 0.018 M Ba(OH)2 solution.
* Ba(OH)2 is a strong base – 100% dissociation.

Ba(OH)2 (s) Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

Initial (M): 0.018 0 0
Final (M): 0 0.018 2(0.018)
= 0.036

1) Calculate pOH: 2) Calculate pH:

pOH = -log [OH-] pH + pOH = 14
= -log(0.036) pH = 14 – pOH
= 1.44 = 14 – 1.44
= 12.56
 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS (VA)

» Quantitative analytical process based on measuring

volumes.

» The most common form of VA is the titration, a

process whereby a standard solution of known
concentration is chemically reacted with a solution
of unknown concentration in order to determine the
concentration of the unknown.
 TITRATIONS
• A solution of accurately known concentration
(standard solution) is added gradually added to another
solution of unknown concentration until the chemical
reaction between the two solutions is complete.
• Equivalence point or end point:
- the point at which the reaction is complete.

• Indicator:
- substance that changes color at (or near) the
equivalence point.
APPARATUS FOR ACID-BASES
TITRATION

Slowly add base to unknown acid

UNTIL the indicator changes color
 ACID-BASES TITRATIONS
Example 1:
Calculate volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution that is
required to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4 solution.

1.420 M NaOH
(in burette)

25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4

(in conical flask)
i) Write the balanced chemical equation:
H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4
ii) Formula:

MaVa a Ma = concentration of acid

= Mb = concentration of base
MbVb b Va = volume of acid
Vb = volume of base
a = coefficient of acid
b = coefficient of base
(4.50 M) (25 mL) 1
=
(1.420 M) (Vb) 2
Vb = 158 mL
 pH PROFILE OF THE TITRATION
(TITRATION CURVE)
Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations
• NaOH is titrated against HCl.
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) H2O (l)

NaOH

HCl
(pH = 1.00)
• Before addition of NaOH
- pH = 1.00

• When the NaOH added:

- pH increase slowly at first

• Near the equivalence point or end point

(the point which equimolar amounts of
acid and base have reacted):
- the curve rises almost vertically

• Beyond the equivalence point:

- pH increases slowly
Titration curve of the acid-base titration between
NaOH and HCl
a) Titration from base to acid

Base (in burette)

- Unknown volume or
unknown concentration

Acid (in conical flask)

Example:
In an acid-base titration, a solution of 0.32 M KOH is
titrated against 24 mL of 0.22 M of HCl.
i) Write a balance equation for the above acid-base
reaction.
ii) Calculate the initial pH before addition of KOH.
iii) Determine the volume of 0.32 M KOH required to
neutralise the HCl solution.
iv) Sketch a labelled titration curve to show the change in
pH during the titration. Indicate on the graph the
followings: the title of axes, the pH at end point, the initial
pH and the volume of KOH solution required to reach the
equivalence point.
0.32 M KOH
(unknown volume)

24 mL of 0.22 M of
HCl
Answer:
i) Write a balance equation for the above acid-base reaction.
KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O

ii) Calculate the initial pH before addition of KOH.

* pH of HCl (in conical flask)
HCl → H+ + Cl-
Initial (M): 0.22 0 0
Final (M): 0 0.22 0.22

pH = -log [H+]
= - log (0.22)
= 0.66
iii) Determine the volume of 0.32M KOH required to
neutralise the HCl solution.

MaVa = a Vb = ?
MbVb b

(0.22 M) (24 mL) = 1

(0.32 M ) Vb 1

Vb = 16.5 mL
iv) Sketch a labelled titration curve to show the change in pH during
the titration. Indicate on the graph the followings: the title of
axes, the pH at end point, the initial pH and the volume of KOH
solution required to reach the equivalence point.
pH

14.00

7.00 end point

0.66

16.5 Volume of KOH (mL)

b) Titration from acid to base

Acid (in burette)

- Unknown volume or
unknown concentration

Base (in conical flask)

Example:
In an experiment 50 mL 0.15 M aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide, NaOH was titrated with 0.25 M aqueous solution
of sulfuric acid, H2SO4. The acid base titration was shown as
below:
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
i) Calculate the pH of NaOH before H2SO4 was added.

ii) Calculate the volume of H2SO4 solution required to reach

equivalent point.

iii) Sketch the general shape of the titration curve. Label the
pH at the starting of the titration, pH at the equivalence
point and the volume of H2SO4 at the equivalence point.
0.25 M H2SO4
(unknown volume)

50 mL 0.15 M NaOH
Answer:
i) Calculate the pH of NaOH before H2SO4 was added.

NaOH → Na+ + OH-

Initial (M): 0.15 0 0
Final (M): 0 0.15 0.15

pOH = - log [OH-]

= - log (0.15)
= 0.82
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 – 0.82
pH = 13.18
ii)Calculate the volume of H2SO4 solution required to
reach equivalent point.

MaVa = a Va = ?
MbVb b

(0.25 M)Va = 1
(0.15 M ) (50 mL) 2

Va = 15 mL
iii) Sketch the general shape of the titration curve. Label the
pH at the starting of the titration, pH at the equivalence point
and the volume of H2SO4 at the equivalence point.

Volume of
H2SO4 (mL)