SPIRIT OF GEOLOGY STUDENTS OF UNSRI

GEOLOGY STUDENTS SHOULD:

LOVE THE EARTH THEY LEARN.
TAKE CARE OF AND BE LIVING IN HARMONY WITH
THE ENVIRONMENT.
BE AWARE OF ANY POTENTIAL NATURAL DISASTERS
WITHIN THE SURROUNDING REGION.
BE ABLE TO EXPLORE AS WELL AS TO PRESERVE
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES FOR
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
BE NATURALLY HARD WORK, CREATIVE, INNOVATIVE,
AND PERFORMING HIGH STANDARD OF QUALITY OF
LIFE.
 COURSE OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION GEOLOGI STRUKTUR
• Sejarah Pembentukan Bumi • Deformasi tektonik
• Pembagian lapisan bumi • Deformasi brittle
• Origin dan komposisi kerak bumi
• Panas bumi (gradien geotermal)
• Deformasi ductile
• Diskusi kelas (class discussion)
KONSEP DALAM STRATIGRAFI TEKTONIK LEMPENG
DAN SEDIMENTOLOGI • Lempeng Bumi
 Konsep Steno (1669) • Lempeng Samodera
 Konsep James Hutton (1785) • Lempeng Benua
 Konsep Penerobosan (cross-cutting • Karakteristik Lempeng
relationship) • Pergerakan Lempeng
 Konsep William Smith • Cekungan Sedimen
 Konsep Pergantian Fauna • Jalur Orogen
 Konsep Kepunahan Organik
 Keselarasan dan Ketidakselarasan

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 INTRODUCTION
GEOLOGI dari kata geo (bumi) dan logi (logos atau
ilmu): ilmu yang mempelajari bumi – further explanation,
including some relevant instances

Materi kuliah PENDAHULUAN ini memberikan pengetahuan

(knowledge) tentang:
• Sejarah singkat pembentukan bumi
• Pembagian lapisan bumi
• Origin dan komposisi kerak bumi
• Panas bumi (gradien geotermal)
• Diskusi kelas (class discussion)

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A differentiated planet.
Early in its history, the
Earth--like the other
terrestrial planets--
separated into three layers
of differing physical
properties and chemical
composition. The
outermost layer is the
low-density, rocky crust.
Next is the mantle, which
is still rocky but of
intermediate density. The
innermost layer is the
high-density, metallic
core. This process of
separating into layers is
called planetary
differentiation.
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 The earth’s interior
• Scientists have determined that the earth’s interior consists of
three principal concentric layers, each with a different density
(the quantity of matter in a given volume of a substance.
Because its chemical structure is more compact, one cubic
centimeter of iron is far denser than one cubic centimeter of
glass).

• The outermost layer of the earth is a thin crust of relatively

low-density rocks.

• Underlying it is the mantle, a thick layer of denser rocks.

• At the earth’s center is its core, the densest layer of all,

consisting primarily of pure metals such as iron and nickel.

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The earth’s interior, continued…
•The outer 100 km (60 miles) of the earth, encompassing both the
earth’s crust and the uppermost portion of the mantle, is a solid, brittle
layer known as the lithosphere (rock layer – from the Greek lithos,
rock).

•Underlying the lithosphere is the asthenosphere (weak layer, from the

Greek aesthenos, weak), a zone of heat-softened, slow-flowing yet still-
solid rock located in the upper mantle from about 100 to 350 km (60-
215 miles) beneath the earth’s surface. The lithosphere and
asthenosphere are where large-scale geological processes as
mountain building, volcanism, earthquake activity, and the creation of
ocean basins originate.

• Below the mantle, the core is divided into a liquid outer core and a
solid inner core.
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Seismic discontinuities in the mantle. Changes in seismic
wave velocity occur at the boundaries between the crust
and the mantle (the Moho) and between the mantle and the
core, owing to changes in composition

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As the earth differentiated into its major concentric layers
some upwelling material reached the surface, where it cooled
and solidified, forming the earth’s earliest crust.
Among these low-density substances were oxygen and silicon,
which combined to form the silicate minerals that abound in
the earth’s crust and upper mantle.
Some heat-producing radioactive substances such as uranium
and thorium also moved toward the surface; because of heat
radiating from these elements, crustal rocks are repeatedly
remelted and reformed into the wide variety of rock types.

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Elements of the crust. These pie charts show the
relative proportions of the most abundant elements in
the Earth's continental crust. A. Abundances by weight.

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Elements of the crust. These pie charts show the relative proportions of the most
abundant elements in the Earth's continental crust. B. Abundances by atomic
proportions. C. Percentages of elements by volume. Oxygen makes up most of
the volume because it has a large ionic radius. Oxygen occupies so much space
that the crust is essentially a big oxygen mesh.

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13
 HEAT IN THE EARTH
•The phenomenon of heat, which is a form of energy, is
closely tied to numerous processes that continue to shape
our planet. Heat energy is transferred from place to place
within the earth, always moving from warmer to cooler
areas.
•There are 3 primary methods by which heat energy is
transmitted through the earth:
•Conduction
•Convection
•Radiation

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 RADIATION A

C B

CONDUCTION
A: atoms farthest from
heat source are not
vibrating yet (cool)
B: atoms vibrating a
little (cool-warm)
CONVECTION
C: atoms closest to
heat source are
vibrating rapidly.

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 CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION
•In conduction, minute particles such as atoms become energized by
heat energy from an outside source until they vibrate rapidly, colliding
with neighboring particles and setting them in motion, generating a
chain reaction of vibration.
•When heat is transferred by convection, vibrating particles actually
move from one place to another, carrying heat with them instead of
vibrating in place and passing their heat only to neighboring particles.
When the temperature in the earth’s interior became high enough to
melt some of its components, heat began to be transported by moving
particles of the fluid.
•Eventually this heat melted surrounding substances as well, and
particles of hot low-density materials rose toward the surface, carrying
heat with them. Convection is a much faster, more efficient way of
transmitting heat than is conduction. The heat and molten material
carried by this process probably caused the planet’s first volcanic
eruptions.
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 RADIATION
•All heated objects radiate energy in one form or
another.
•Energy transmitted by radiation moves in the form of
one or more different types of electromagnetic waves,
such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves,
visible light waves, ultraviolet light waves, and X-rays.
•These forms of energy are then converted into heat
energy when they strike and are absorbed by an
object.
•Radioactive substances within the earth emit different
forms of electromagnetic radiation that are converted
to heat energy when they warm surrounding rocks.

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 GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT

Temperature increases with depth in the Earth. The dashed lines are isotherms,
lines of equal temperature. Note that temperature increases more slowly with
depth under the continents than under the oceans, where it gets quite hot at a
shallow depth.
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The Earth's energy budget. Energy comes into the Earth's energy budget
from three main sources: external (solar radiation), internal (geothermal
energy), and from Earth-Moon-Sun tidal interactions, a very small
component.
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 CLASS DISCUSSION
Gradien geotermal pada kerak bumi secara umum
berkisar antara 20º-30ºC/km. Apabila temperatur
permukaan berkisar antara 10º-20ºC, maka berapakah
temperatur pada kedalaman 4-5 km.
Pada suatu daerah dijumpai singkapan batuan beku
dalam (intrusive rock) dan atau batuan metamorfik (note:
kedua jenis batuan ini terbentuk pada temperatur tinggi).
Diskusikan korelasi antara temperatur dan pembentukan
serta penyingkapan batuan tersebut.
Diskusikan implikasinya pada sejarah panas bumi mulai
dari proses sedimentasi (burial) hingga pengangkatan
akibat denudasi (erosi).
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Konsep dalam Stratigraphy dan Sedimentology

Principle of Superposition (Steno, 1669):

– Understanding and application by British
geologists James Hutton and William Smith
(around 1800)
– Principle: In sedimentary rocks, younger
layers are deposited on top of older layers.
– Implications: the sequence of layers in a
section of sedimentary rocks preserves a
sequence of historical (geological) events. The
sequence can still be recognized even if rocks
tilted.
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KONSEP DALAM STRATIGRAFI DAN SEDIMENTOLOGI

 Konsep “Superposisi”: lapisan batuan berumur muda

berada di atas lapisan batuan berumur tua. Pengertian
lain: lapisan batuan yang di bawah terbentuk terlebih
dahulu dan mendasari lapisan batuan yang di atasnya.
Class discussion: Kapan atau dalam keadaan bagaimana hukum
superposisi tidak berlaku di lapangan? Buat sketsa dimulai dari
gambar di bawah ini (setiap warna merepresentasikan lapisan
batuan yang berbeda, tanda panah menunjukkan gaya tektonik).

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Gambar B memperlihatkan pembalikan posisi stratigrafi
akibat gaya tektonik yang menyebabkan deformasi sikuen
batuan, sehingga lapisan berumur tua berada di atas lapisan
yang muda.
 E Observe these poins
D
C
B
A

•Rock unit A is older than rock unit B.

•Rock unit B is older than rock unit C.
•Rock unit C is older than rock unit D.
•Rock unit D is older than rock unit E.
•Rock unit E is the youngest sequence.
STUDENT DISCUSSION on topographic vs
stratigraphic levels, which poin
topographically higher level but
stratigraphically lower level (older rock unit)?
Konsep “Kesinambungan Lateral” (lateral
continuity): lapisan batuan sedimen menerus
secara lateral (sampai ke tepi cekungan
pengendapan).

Class discussion: Di lapangan sering dijumpai lapisan

batuan sedimen yang tidak menerus secara lateral atau
menghilang, faktor apa yang menyebabkan hal itu? Lihat
juga gambar slide berikut, kenapa lapisan D tidak dijumpai
di blok pegunungan 3? Note: dalam membuat interpretasi
harus ada alternatif (bukan interpretasi tunggal dijadikan
solusi untuk setiap permasalahan geologi)

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Perhatikan kemenerusan lapisan batuan
(diskusikan lapisan D)

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Konsep William Smith: urutan lapisan sedimen dapat dilacak
(secara lateral) dengan mengenali kumpulan fosilnya jika
kriteria litologinya tidak menentu. Artinya:
 suatu lapisan yang sama mengandung kumpulan fosil yang sama
meskipun litologinya sudah berubah (berbeda).
 kesinambungan lateral suatu lapisan batuan sedimen dapat dilacak
melalui kandungan fosilnya, meskipun litologinya secara fisik sudah
berubah/berbeda. Misal, batupasir berubah secara lateral menjadi
batulempung, dan keduanya memiliki kandungan fosil sama, maka
kedua jenis litologi tersebut merupakan satu lapisan batuan.
Konsep Pergantian Fauna (law of faunal succession): dalam
urut-urutan (secara vertikal) batuan sedimen, maka
sekelompok lapisan dapat mengandung kumpulan fosil-fosil
(fauna) tertentu, yang berbeda dengan sekelompok lapisan di
atasnya ataupun di bawahnya.

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Konsep Kepunahan Organik (Principle of organic extinction) –
George Cuvier (1769-1832): kumpulan fosil yang berlainan
dijumpai dalam urutan stratigrafi yang berbeda, endapan
yang lebih muda mengandung organisme yang cenderung
menyerupai organisme sekarang daripada yang dikandung
oleh endapan yang lebih tua.
Korelasi konsep-konsep dalam stratigrafi dan atau
sedimentologi seperti “Steno - William Smith - Pergantian
Fauna - Kepunahan Organik” melahirkan Prinsip Umur
Geologi Relatif....explain it more about relative ages.

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Konsep “Akumulasi Vertikal” (Keaslian
Horizontal): lapisan sedimen pada awalnya
diendapkan secara mendatar (horizontal),
sedangkan akumulasi material sedimen terjadi
secara vertikal.
Class discussion: di lapangan lapisan batuan sedimen
banyak dijumpai TIDAK horizontal, tetapi miring. Bagaimana
hal itu bisa terjadi? Pada lingkungan pengendapan
bagaimana lapisan sedimen memperlihatkan keaslian
kemiringan? Lihat gambar slide berikut.
Lingkungan pengendapan delta memperlihatkan lapisan sedimen
membentuk kemiringan asli (bukan karena deformasi oleh gaya
tektonik) seperti terlihat pada foreset beds.

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Deltaic sequences in Kota Karang, Muara Dua

Very gently to almost horizontal dipping beds of topset

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Konsep James Hutton (1785):
Azas uniformitarianisme: proses yang terjadi pada
masa lampau akan mengikuti hukum yang berlaku
pada proses-proses yang terjadi pada masa
sekarang. Students should provide some
examples (e.g. Processes concerning with
deposition or sedimentation, river system, volcanic
activities, and other geologic events).
The present is the key to the past (or vice versa):
kejadian sekarang merupakan kunci peristiwa
geologi masa lampau. Students should provide
some examples.

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Konsep “Penerobosan/Intrusi”: batuan yang
diterobos umumnya lebih tua daripada batuan yang
menerobos, atau sebaliknya.
Class discussion: amati
gambar ini dan ungkapkan
hubungan batuan satu
dengan yang lainnya dalam
konteks umur masing-masing
jenis batuan (urut-urutan
terbentuknya).

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Intrusi biasanya disertai dengan:
Pendinginan magma yang membentuk batuan
beku terobosan (intrusive rock).
Efek bakar (baking effect) terhadap batuan
yang diterobos (ºT tidak terlalu tinggi, e.g. Intrusi relatif
dangkal).
Metamorfosa kontak pada batuan yang
diterobos (ºT tinggi, e.g. Intrusi lebih dalam).

Note: di lapangan ketiga fenomena itu sangat penting untuk

membuktikan adanya intrusi batuan beku.
 Intrusi dapat bersifat:
Konkordan: penerobosan magma sejajar (paralel)
dengan lapisan batuan yang diterobos. Contoh: sill,
dan laccolith.
Diskordan: intrusi batuan beku memotong perlapisan
batuan yang diterobos. Contoh: dike, dan stock.

Class discussion: diskusikan pola penyebaran “backing

effect” atau batuan metamorf kontak relatif terhadap strike
batuan beku dan/atau lapisan batuan yang diterobos.

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Perhatikan bentuk-bentuk intrusi batuan beku

Extrusi
Intrusi
 KOROK
DIKE
INTRUSI
(BATOLITH)

BT.SEDIM.

BATOLITH

1. BATOLIT
BENTUK 2. KOROK (“DIKE”)
DISKORDAN 3. STOCK
BENTUK-BENTUK 4. JENJANG VOLKAKIK
BATUAN BEKU ( PIPA GUNUNG BERAPI )
DALAM KERAK BUMI

BENTUK 1. SILL
DIKE KONKORDAN 2. LAKOLIT S.A.
 Keselarasan (conformity) dan Ketidakselarasan
(unconformity)
 Conformity: pengendapan (sedimentasi) berlangsung
menerus tanpa ada selang waktu dari satu lapisan yang di
bawah ke lapisan lain di atasnya.
 Unconformity: proses sedimentasi tidak menerus (ada
jedah waktu atau time break) akibat erosi.

Tipe of unconformity:
– Ketidakselarasan menyudut (angular unconformity)
– Ketidakselarasan sejajar (disconformity)
– Bukan keselarasan (non-conformity).

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39
40
41
Definition
primary structures are those formed in the rock at the same time as
the rock forms. This type of structure can be found in sedimentary
rock and/or volcanic and plutonic rocks.

Origin
• sedimentary processes
• volcanic and plutonic processes

Examples
Sedimentary processes: graded bedding, cross-bedding, flute cast,
scour and fill structure, ripple mark, mud crack, load cast....cari lagi.
(see figure)

Volcanic and plutonic processes

In lava: flow layering, flow structure, pillow lava, vesicles, columnar
joint
In plutonic rock: lineation, sheet joints
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43
Graded Bedding

44
F
i
n
e
r
g
r
a
i
n

45
Cross Bedding
46
47
48
49
Ripple Marks

50
Mud Cracks

51
52
Flow Layering
– A layer of volcanic rock formed due to volcanic flow.
This structure can be recognised from its colour,
texture, and weathered rock.
Flow structures
– Papoehoe and Aa lava – this structure is a good
indicator for flow direction.
Pillow Lava
– The structure is usually “flat” at the bottom but
“curve” at the top of lava basalt – hence good facing
indicator
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Vesicles
– Voids within lava flow formed due to gas escape as lava
cooled. The structure occurs at top or at bottom of lava flow
– hence good facing indicator.
Columnar Jointing
– Fractures formed in lava due to cooling and shrinkage
– Polygonal columns
– Product of slow cooling, top of flow does not have as well
defined columnar joints as base of flow - hence good facing
indicator.
In plutonic rock:
– Lineation of mineral that formed as magma cooled and/or
crystalised – hence good flow indicator.
– Sheet joints due to cooling of intrusive body

54
Columnar joints in andesitic lava flow

55
Student discussion: why is that breccia develops at top but
at bottom of a lava body...???
56
57
Sheet joints in
plutons due to
cooling.

58
Younging or way-up direction indicators
Flow direction indicators
Sedimentary environment analysis

59
Force = mass x acceleration. Tectonic movement
applies force to rocks. This force deformes rocks by
changing their position, re-orientation, and applying
strain (shape).
DEFINITION
imposed structures produced by DEFORMATION, due to
large scale (tectonic) movement in Earth’s crust.
Large scale movements in the Earth’s crust produce large
scale and local deformation, which can range from brittle
(e.g. fault) to ductile (e.g. folds).

ORIGIN
Tectonic structures form due to the stress in or on a body of rock.
This stress produces a stress field, and the stress can vary in
different directions.

The three-dimensional stress can be resolved into 3 mutually

perpendicular directions:σ1, σ2, σ3 σ 3; σ 2; σ 1
σ1 = maximum principal stress
σ2 = intermediate principal stress σ 1; σ 3; σ 2
σ3 = minimum principal stress
σ 2; σ 1; σ 3
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 Get a piece of paper and apply these
stresses to demonstrate deformation.

Pressure Compression

Tension Shear
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Type of deformation
1. Brittle behavior rocks tend to fracture.
2. Ductile behavior rocks tend to buckle and bend.

BRITTLE DEFORMATION: rocks deform by developing

marked discontinuities across which there is often a break
in cohesion (e.g. microfracturing or jointing, faulting,
tectonic breccias)

DUCTILE DEFORMATION: rocks deform by distributing the

strain in a smoothly varying manner throughout the
deforming mass (e.g. folding).

Brittle-ductile deformation: a transition type of deformation.

This type is a fuction of hidrostatic pressure, temperature,
and strain rate.
Lower T, P and higher strain rate brittle, occuring at
shallow levels of crust.

Higher T, P and lower strain rate ductile, accuring at

deep levels of crust or even mantle.

• Pressure responsible for fracturing and craking

• Temperature and decreased strain rate responsible for
crystal slip and atomic diffusion.

Factors influencing DEFORMATION

• Temperature: warm rocks >>> ductile; cold rocks >>> brittle
• Pressure: high pressure >>> ductile
• Deformation rate: slow change >>> ductile; sudden change >>> brittle
• Rock composition: softer rocks >>> ductile; harder rocks >>> brittle
The brittle-ductile transition is at 10-15 km depth.
Below: ductile; above: brittle.

Continental crust earthquakes occur above this

transition zone.

Both brittle and ductile can occur in the same rock

depending on whether the deformation
circumtances were fast or slow.
BRITTLE DEFORMATION

JOINTS are natural cracks in a rock.

Two types of joint: systematic and non-systematic joints

Systematic joints are long planar cracks that occur fairly

regularly throughout a rock body. A joint set is a group of
systematic joints and are typically vertical planes.

Non-systematic joints are short cracks that vary in orientation

and are randomly spaced.

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Brittle deformation (continued)...
Fractures:
– Joints: no movement of rocks on either side relative
to each other
– Faults: opposite sides have moved
Faults:
– fractures parallel to which the rocks on either side of
the fracture have moved relative to each other.
– Large fault: San Andreas Fault (USA) with 1,000 km
outcrop length and 450 km horizontal displacement.
In Indonesia: Semangko Fault (Sumatera), Palu-Koro
Fault (Sulawesi), and Sorong-Yapen Fault (Papua).
– Small Fault: fracture in outcrop or hand specimen with
only a few mm displacement
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Omission of beds
Repetation of beds

Lateral displacement of beds

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 F-2 F-3
F-2 shows the
largest offset

F-1 HANGING WALL

Fault drag

FOOT WALL

F-1 dies out at this

point
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Student discussion: observe deformation occuring on a
sandstone bed below, and identify changes in thickness
along the bed, as well as displacement based on internal
structure within the bed (i.e. lamination – very thin layer).
THRUST FAULT

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Student discussion: observe deformation styles occuring on
sedimentary sequences below, and identify types of structures
(good to identify discontinuities along each bed)
 IMBRICATE FAULT-BEND FOLDING

FORELIMB WITH PROGRESSIVE

THINNING OF BEDS TOWARDS
THE FAULT

Triple Duplex

BACKLIMB WITH CONSTANT

BED THICKNESS

Thrust fault forms

staircase geometry

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A fold in which the strata are concave upward is a
syncline, as seen in the center of the drawing below.

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Limbs have same distance Limbs have different
to the fold axial distance to the fold axial One limb is overturned

One limb lying on the other limb

Very tight fold (limbs are
parallel to the fold axial
and very close each
other)

Sumbu
lipatan
(fold axial)
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Rounded closure (hinge)

76
Kink Bands in Cape Liptrap SE Melbourne (one set of
limbs is very narrow compared to the other shorter limbs
sometimes are called kink bands)

Enveloping surface (axial planes are oblique to it)

Shorter
forelimbs

Longer
backlimbs

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 Shape of curves changes with depth, true thickness constant
around the fold – called parallel fold (Cape Liptrap SE
Melbourne)
East A LOW ANGLE West
TRHUST
Angular hinge

rounded hinge
B
B
A A
C

C
FW cut of <90o, therefore:
A: small fault propagation fold
B: thrust fault Thickening of west limb of unit C
C: big syncline
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80
 WHAT IS TECTONICS AND PLATE?
Tectonics is geologic science studying the forces responsible for formation
of oceanic basins, mountain ranges, earthquake belts, volcanic zones, and
other large-scale features of the earth’s surface.
PLATE is the outer portion of the earth called lithosphere, including its
crust and uppermost segment of mantle (see the following figure).
Lithospheric plates:
– Continental plate
– Oceanic plate
Continental plates generally are not independent, but instead are usually
parts of composite plates that contain both continental and oceanic
segments.
Continental portions of plates are composed of thicker, lower density
lithosphere, whereas oceanic portions of plates are thinner, and of higher
density >>STUDENTS: what does this imply if the two collide each other?
Continental plates are more than 120 kms thick, and oceanic plates are
only about 80 kms thick (at ocean basins).
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Earth’s structure

82
 BASIC PLATE TECTONIC CONCEPTS

The wide-ranging theory of plate tectonics comprises

only four basic concepts:
– The outer portion of the earth – its crust and uppermost
segment of mantle (i.e. its lithosphere) – is composed of
rigid units called plates.
– The plates move.
– Most of the world’s large-scale geological activity, such as
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, occurs at or near
plate boundaries.
– The interiors of plates are relatively quiet geologically, with
far fewer and milder earthquakes than occur at plate
boundaries and little volcanic activity.

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 HISTORY OF PLATE TECTONIC CONCEPT
 Began with the theory of continental drift published in “The
origin of continents and oceans” (Alfred Wegener, 1915 - the
German astronomer, geophysicist, and meteorologist).
 The centerpoint of the theory:
 South America fits perfectly into Africa, meaning they have
once been a single continent that was somehow torn apart,
i.e. South America floated off to the west of Africa.
 Supporting evidence for this theory includes:
 Similarities of rock types, structures, and fossils (leaves of a
distinctive fossil, glossopteris) on opposing shores of the Atlantic
ocean.
 How continents can possibly move?
 Arthur Holmes (1926-1936) proposed such a mechanism: great
convection currents (concentrated pattern of upwelling and
downwelling convection cells) in the mantle carry the continents across
the surface of the earth – but not enough observational evidence until
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1960s.
 Harry Hess of Princeton University (1964) explored the ocean
floors, providing the necessary evidence for Holmes’s
convection cells theory.
 He found a giant range of mountains submerged between the
African-European Atlantic Coast and North America – this mid
Atlantic ridge was the site of a process of sea-floor spreading.
 The mid-Atlantic ridge consists of a string of volcanoes that
produce new sea floor when they erupt – lava cools and
spreads away from these volcanoes to become the conveyor
belt upon which the continents ride, hence the name sea-floor
spreading.
 This process forms new rock, then moves new lava away
from the mountain range as even newer lava replaces it at the
midocean ridge crest – a lithospheric plate is so formed.

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First Era: Second Era:
Alfred Wegener (1915) Arthur Holmes (1926-1936)
– continental drift – convection currents

Third Era:
Harry Hess (1964)
– sea floor spreading
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 THEORY OF
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
 Class Discussion
 Task:
 students should make a group of discussion of 4-5
people
 Each group discusses the following topics and
write down all matters coming up from discussion
 Topics:
 Review on how plate tectonic theory developed
through time.
 Review on the basic concept of plate tectonic
theory. 88
THE EARTH’S PLATES

89
 Figure shows topography of continents and sea floor
Student task: write down all tectonic plate and geographic names

90
MID-PACIFIC RIDGE IN HAWAII

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92
 DRIVING FORCES
 Surface plates respond to the pushes and pulls of mantle
convection or fluid motion of partial molten asthenosphere
caused by density and temperature anomalies (geothermal
gradient).
 There are three hypotheses of convection cell:
 Shallow convection cell (restricted within upper mantle
or asthenosphere)
 Deep convection cell (from lower mantle up to
asthenosphere)
 Two-tiered convection cell (in lower mantle and
asthenosphere)
 Thermal plumes – hot spots (from outer core - lower
mantle boundary) – see Hawaii
 Those natural phenomena (convection cell and thermal
plume) are believed to be responsible for the movement of
oceanic and continental plates.
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94
MANTLE CONVECTION AND PLATE MOTION

95
 PLATE BOUNDARIES
 There are three types of plate boundaries:
Convergent – also known as or subduction zone or
destructive plate boundary
Divergent – also known as sea-floor spreading center or
constructive plate boundary
Transform – or strike-slip fault or preserved plate
boundary
• Each of these plate boundaries is characterized by a different
kind of force:
Compression or collision at subduction zones
Tension or extension at sea-floor spreading boundaries
Shearing or tearing at transform faults.
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97
 (1) CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
The volcanic activity taking place at subduction zones
differs in composition and type.
The volcanism is typically explosive and partial melting
of both upper mantle and continental crustal rocks is
important.
Pyroclastic rocks and tuffs, composed of glasses,
ashes, and volcanic bombs blown out of steep-sided
stratovolcanoes are typical of this environment.
The lavas produced by subduction are typically
andesites, that is they contain more silica, aluminium,
sodium, and less calcium, magnesium, and iron than
the dominantly basaltic and gabbroic rocks produced
at spreading ridges. 98
 (2) DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

Volcanism occurs along divergent plate boundaries

to form new oceanic crust and/or submarine ridges.

Partial melting of mantle peridotite generates

basaltic magma.

The exposed sequences consist of a basal

peridotites, stratified magma chambers composed
of ultramafic rocks and gabbros, a sheeted dike
complex.

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DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

101
 (3) TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARY
Two plates slide past each other, along a linear fracture in the
earth called a transform fault, e.g. the San Andreas – here the
Pacific plate is sliding to the northwest across the North
American plate.
In this situation, plate boundary is characterized by shearing
mechanism, plates are conserved (no destruction nor
construction).
Transform fault, like ocean ridges, are characterized by
shallow earthquakes (<50 km deep)
As predicted by seafloor spreading, earthquakes are
restricted to areas between offset ridge axes.
There are three types of transform faults:
Ridge-ridge transform fault
Ridge-trench transform fault
Trench-trench transform fault
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 HOT SPOTS
Hot spot volcanism is typically not located at the boundaries
of tectonic plates.
The volcanic islands of Hawaii, the Azores, Galapagos, dan
Yellowstones National Park in Wyoming are hot spots located
some distance from plate boundaries.
More than a hundred hot spots beneath the earth’s crust
have been active during the past 10 million years.
Hot spot activity is identified by volcanism that has occurred
for very long period of time from small localized sources of
high heat.
Hot spot volcanism typically produces basaltic lavas marked
by high alkali contents that increase with time (alkali basalts).
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PLATE BOUNDARIES AND HOT SPOTS

104
Hot spot in Hawaii. The Hawaiian Island chain of volcanoes formed above a deep-
seated source of hot material within the mantle, is called a plume. The hot spot over the
plume has remained stationary for at least 70 million years. Meanwhile the Pacific Plate has
moved over it, carrying with it the old volcanic landforms built over the hot spot.

105
 ASSIGNMENT

 Write an essay discussing the development of

volcanic island chain in Hawai based mainly on the
above diagram.
 The essay should come up from a discussion group
of 4-5 students.
 Discussion should be focused on history of Pacific
plate movement through time, and consequently
volcanic islands occurred over the hot spot.
 UJIAN SEMESTER PENDEK
KONSEP GEOLOGI
29 Mei 2017
1. Uraikan dengan jelas minimal 5 konsep stratigrafi/sedimentologi
yang tercermin pada Gambar 1.
2. Uraikan dengan detil kegunaan struktur primer untuk merestorasi
posisi stratigrafi sikuen batuan yang telah mengalami deformasi kuat
sehingga terjadi pembalikan urutan stratigrafinya
3. Uraikan dengan jelas konsep penerobosan yang terlihat pada
gambar 2. Jelaskan secara rinci urut-urutan peristiwa geologi di
daerah tersebut (Gambar 2)
4. Jelaskan dengan detil sikuen batuan pada Gambar 3 telah mengalami
deformasi apa saja dan struktur geologi apa saja yang terbentuk.
Deformasi terjadi dengan cara bagaimana (misal shortening dengan
cara terlipat atau tersesarkan) ? Gunakan notasi sendiri untuk
memperjelas uraian.
5. Jelaskan secara detil perbedaan deformasi apa yang terlihat pada
sikuen yang di bawah dan yang di atas (lihat Gambar 4).

107