Chapter 8

Questions to Consider

 What is meant by the term “chemical bond”?

 Why do atoms bond with each other to form
compounds?
 How do atoms bond with each other to form
compounds?

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Chapter 8

Types of Structures

 Network Covalent Elements or Compounds

 Lattice Structures (Ionic Compounds)
 Metallic elements or alloys
 Polar Covalent
 Nonpolar Covalent
Network Covalent Solids
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Network Covalent Examples

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Network Covalent solids (Diamond vs. Graphite)

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Silicon based Network Solids

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Network Solid Crash Course

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_SXwfHQ774
 Ionic Solids
(Lattice Structures)
Metallic Structure
Alloys
Brass and Steel
Section 8.1
Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic, Polar Covalent, Covalent

 A bond will be ionic or covalent based on
electronegativity difference…the larger the
difference the more ionic…

 Zero difference in electronegativity would mean

100% covalent (think bonds within the diatomics)

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Section 8.2
Electronegativity

The Pauling Electronegativity Values

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Section 8.6
Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds
The relationship between the ionic character of a covalent bond and
the electronegativity difference of the bonded atoms

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Section 8.2
Electronegativity

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Section 8.2
Electronegativity

EXERCISE!

Arrange the following bonds from most to least polar:

a) N–F O–F C–F

b) C–F N–O Si–F
c) Cl–Cl B–Cl S–Cl
a) C–F, N–F, O–F
b) Si–F, C–F, N–O
c) B–Cl, S–Cl, Cl–Cl
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16
Section 8.6
Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds

Operational Definition of Ionic Compound

 Any compound that conducts an electric current when
melted will be classified as ionic.

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Section 8.6
Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds

Ionic Structure representation of sodium chloride

Section 8.6
Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds

Cleavage (Stress) of Ionic Solid

Section 8.6
Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds

Ionic Solid Dissolving in Water

Section 8.5
Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds

 What are the factors that influence the stability and the
structures of solid binary ionic compounds?
 How strongly the ions attract each other in the solid state
is indicated by the lattice energy.

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Section 8.5
Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds

Lattice Energy
 The change in energy that takes place when separated
gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic solid.

 Q1Q2 
Lattice energy = k  
 r 
k = proportionality constant
Q1 and Q2 = charges on the ions
r = shortest distance between the centers of the
cations and anions
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Section 8.5
Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds
What would be expected to have a stronger ionic
structure?
 NaCl or NaF?
NaF (F- is smaller than Cl-)
 LiCl or NaCl?
LiCl (Li+ is smaller than Na+)
 MgF2 or NaF?
MgF2 (Mg2+ is smaller than Na+ and Higher Charge)
 NaF or MgO
MgO (Higher magnitude of charge)
Section 8.5
Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds

Polar Covalent Bonds vs. Compounds

 A polar covalent bond is a bond between two

elements that have a difference in
electronegativity.

 A polar covalent compound (molecule) is a

molecule which has polar bonds, but also is
asymmetrical (not symmetrical)
Section 8.1
Types of Chemical Bonds

The Effect of an Electric Field on Hydrogen Fluoride Molecules

 or  indicates a positive or negative fractional charge.

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Section 8.3
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments

Dipole Moment
 Property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be
represented by a center of positive charge and a center
of negative charge.
 Use an arrow to represent a dipole moment.
 Point to the negative charge center with the tail of the
arrow indicating the positive center of charge.

 One side of the molecule has a negative

charge…the other has a positive charge.
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26
Section 8.3
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments

Dipole Moment

27
Section 8.3
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments

No Net Dipole Moment (Dipoles Cancel)

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28

Section 8.3
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments

What would a Polar Covalent liquid look like?

Section 8.3
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments

Strengths of Covalent compounds

 When comparing strengths of covalent

compounds (melting point/boiling point) we
compare IMFs

 Intermolecular forces
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Types of IMF’s in Covalent Compounds

 Intermolecular Forces
 Hydrogen bonding (strongest of the IMF’s)
 Dipole-dipole (the bigger the electronegativity
difference, the stronger the dipole-dipole)
 Sometimes called dipole moment or dipole interaction
 London Dispersion Forces (The more electrons, the
greater the London Dispersion)
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Dipole-Dipole interaction
 A molecule can only have a permanent dipole
moment if it is polar (asymmetrical)

 Any polar molecule without the “FON” bond is

considered to have dipole-dipole forces

 The more polar the bonds (bigger

electronegativity difference) within the
molecule…the stronger the dipole interaction
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Draw the dipole-dipole interaction in HCl and CO

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Hydrogen Bonding

 Only occurs in molecules that are polar

 Must have an asymmetrical shape

 Can’t have hydrogen bonds without “FON”

 H–F H – O or H – N
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Hydrogen bonding in HF molecule

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Hydrogen bonding in water

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
London Dispersion (Happens to all covalent compounds
even polar compounds)
 Sometimes referred to as an “instantaneous
dipole” or a “spontaneous dipole”
 A dipole moment that turns on because electrons
are constantly moving around a molecule.
 Chance that at any given point in time there is an
uneven distribution of electrons within a
molecule
 Not permanent…can turn off just a soon as it
turns on
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

London Dispersion

 The more total electrons contained by a molecule

the greater the chance that there is a
spontaneous uneven distribution of the electrons.

 So more electrons = Stronger London Dispersion!

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
Of the following pairs, pick the compound with
strongest IMF’s
A. HCl or HF
HF has hydrogen bonding
B. CH4 or C3H8
C3H8 has more LDF. More e-
C. PF3 or NF3

PF3 has a stronger dipole moment

(The P-F bond is more polar than N-F bond)
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Comparing Types of Compounds & Strength

 Network Covalent Compounds

 SiO2, C(diamond)…pretty much when Si is involved you
can think Network Covalent Solid
 Ionic
 Metallic
 Polar Covalent
 Covalent
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
Which compound is the strongest (highest melting
point?)
 Network Covalent Compounds will always be the
strongest…in problems there will only be 1.
 Ionic compounds are usually next
 Metallic compounds next
 Polar covalent w/hydrogen bonding
 Polar covalent w/dipole dipole
 Non polar covalent…(more electrons = stronger)
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

How to compare Ionic Compounds

 Which is stronger? NaCl or NaF?

 Melting point NaCl = 801ᵒC

 Melting point of NaF = 993ᵒC

Why?

 The smaller the ions, the closer they can get

together…the stronger the force of attraction!
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

How to compare Ionic Compounds

 Which is stronger? NaF or MgO

 Melting point NaF = 993ᵒC

 Melting point MgO = 2,852ᵒ

 How can we tell? Fluoride is smaller than oxide

but magnesium ion is smaller than sodium ion
 Magnitude of charge…2- and 2+ have a greater
attraction than 1- and 1+
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Coulombs Law
 The magnitude of the electrostatic force of interaction
between two point charges is directly proportional to the
scalar multiplication of the magnitudes of charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them
 Interpreted for you…The closer oppositely charged
particles are to each other the stronger the attraction.
The greater the charge of the oppositely charged
particles the stronger the attraction
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Coulombs Law

F = force of attraction between the ions

K = is coulomb’s constant 8.99×109 N m2 C−2
q1 and q2 = the charges of the ions
d2= the distance between the ions
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Comparing the Strength of Metals

 Basically the same as Ionic Bonds…the smaller the

radius, the more tightly packed together the
particles are…the stronger the structure.

 Use radius trend to determine the different

strengths of metals….and mass

 Denser metals tend to be stronger!

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions

Comparing the strength of covalent compounds

 Polar is usually stronger than nonpolar…always

exceptions….A really big nonpolar molecule can
be stronger than a small polar molecule.

 Polar w/hydrogen bonding

 Polar w/o hydrogen bonding
 Non polar

 Again there are always exceptions!!!

Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
Why is I2 a solid at room temperature but water is a
liquid?

 Compare IMF’s
 I2 is nonpolar (London Dispersion only)
 H2O is polar and has one of the FON bonds (Hydrogen
bonding)

 I2’s London Dispersion forces are stronger than

the hydrogen bonding in water!
Section 8.8
Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
Put it all together!!! Put these in order of highest to
lowest melting point.

C3H8, SiO2, KF, Zn, CH4, NH3, H2S, Cs, KCl, Li2O

 Separate them by type of compound first

 SiO2, Li2O, KF, KCl, Zn, Cs, NH3, H2S, C3H8, CH4