Semiconductor Basics

 What is an atom?
 Atoms are the main building blocks of matter. All the materials are made up of very
small particles called atoms. For example chair, water, air, plants and humans etc.

 Atom consists of three sub atomic particles-electron, proton and neutron.

 Protons and neutrons are stick together to form a nucleus in the center of atom.

 These protons and neutrons are stick together because of the strong nuclear force
present between them. 1
 What is an Electron?

 Electrons are negatively charged particles which are moving with high velocity
around the nucleus of atom in specific paths called orbits.
 As long as the electron is held in a particular orbit, its energy is constant. Therefore
these orbits are called as stationary obits.

 The electrons are held in orbit because of the electrostatic force of attraction present
between electrons and protons.

 Electrostatic force is a force of attraction or repulsion present between charged

particles (electrons and protons).

 The mass of the electron is very small, its mass is 9.107 × 10-31 kg and It has a
charge of 1.602 × 10-19 Coulombs (C).
 Electrons are revolving around the nucleus in different orbits. Each orbit has certain
fixed amount of energy.
 The mass of the electron is 1830 times smaller than the mass of proton.
 Therefore, the mass of the electrons orbiting the nucleus is negligible compared to
mass of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of a atom.
2
 What is Proton?

 Proton is a positively charged particle.

 It is more heavier than electron, mass of proton is 1.672 × 10-27kilograms.
 It has a charge of 1.602 × 10-19 Coulombs (C).
 One or more protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
 The charge of proton is equal to charge of electron but have opposite polarity.

3
 What is Neutron?

• Neutron has no electric charge.

• The mass of neutron is slightly higher than that of the proton.
• Mass of neutron is 1.675 ×10-27 Kilograms.
• The nucleus of every atom consists of at least one neutron.

• The attraction between positively charged protons and negatively charged

electrons holds an atom together.

• Generally, in an atom, the total number of protons is equal to the total number of
electrons.

• When the atom have equal number of electrons and protons, then the atom is said
to be electrically neutral because protons and electrons have opposites charges so
they cancel each other which results in zero net charge.

4
 Atomic number, Neutron number and Mass number
Atomic number
• The number of protons in the nucleus of a atom is called as atomic number.
• In a neutral atom, number of protons is equal to number of electrons.
• Therefore in neutral atom, atomic number is equal to number of electrons.
• Atomic number is also known as proton number. It is represented by a symbol ' Z '.

Neutron number :
 The number of neutrons in the nucleus of a atom is called as neutron number.
 Neutron number is denoted by a symbol ' N '.

Mass number :
• The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of a atom is called as mass
number.
• Mass number is also called as nucleon number or atomic mass number.
• It is represented by a symbol ' A '. we can write it as A = Z + N
Where, N = neutron number, Z = atomic number, A = mass number

5
 Orbit of electrons in an atom

• The electrons are revolving around the nucleus in different orbits at a fixed distance from
the nucleus.
• Each orbit or shell contains a fixed number of electrons.
• Generally, each orbit or shell contains a maximum of 2n2 electrons where, n is the number
of shell.
• By just substituting the shell number in ' n ' we can easily calculate number of electrons in
each shell.
• First shell occupy a maximum of two electrons i.e, (2 × 12 = 2) , second shell occupy a
maximum of eight electrons i.e, (2 × 22 = 8) and third shell occupy a maximum of 18
electrons i.e, (2 × 32 = 18) and so on.

6
 Continued……

• Each orbit or shell has an energy level associated with it.

• If the distance from the nucleus to the electrons is more then the attractive force of the
nucleus on the electrons is less and similarly if the distance between the nucleus and
electrons is less then the attractive force of the nucleus on the electrons is more.

• The electrons revolving around the nucleus in the first shell which is closest to the nucleus is
strongly attached to the nucleus because of strong attractive force.
•
• Electrons in first shell have least energy associated with it.

• The electrons revolving around the nucleus in the last shell which is farther away from the
nucleus is loosely attached to the nucleus.

• The electrons in the outermost orbit or shell has highest energy.

• The rule of 2n2 is not valid for the outer most shell of an atom.

• The outer most shell or orbit of a atom contains maximum of 8 electrons.

7
 Valence electrons

• The electrons present in the outermost shell or orbit of an atom is called as valence
electrons.
• These electrons are farthest away from the nucleus.
• The outermost orbit of an atom contains maximum of 8 electrons.

• These electrons determine the electrical and physical properties of a material.

• The electrons revolving in the outer most orbit of a atom has highest energy level.
• Valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus.
• Therefore, less amount of energy is required to pull an electron from the outer most orbits.
8
 Free electrons

• The electrons which are not attached to the nucleus of an atom and free to move when
external energy is applied are called free electrons.

• Electric field is a region around the charged particle within which the other charged particle
will experience a repulsive or attractive force.
• Valence electrons are loosely attached to the nucleus of a atom. When small amount of
external energy in form of heat or light is applied to the valence electrons then they get
pulled away from the parent atom and becomes free.
• The force of attraction of the nucleus does not act on the free electron. The flow of free
electrons in a material is called an electric current. The moving free electrons will transmit
electric current from one point to other.
• Materials which contain free electrons will conduct electric current. Materials which does not
contain free electrons does not conduct electric current. 9
 Ionization

• The process of loosing or gaining an electron, which converts electrically neutral

atom to a charged atom is called as ionization.
• In a electrically neutral atom, the total number of protons in the nucleus is equal to
total number of electrons orbiting the nucleus.
• In charged atom, the total number of protons in the nucleus is not equal to the
total number of electrons orbiting the nucleus.
Positive ion
• In a electrically neutral atom, if the electron is pulled away from the outermost
orbit then the atom will lose an electron.
• When the neutral atom loses an electron, the total number of electrons orbiting
the nucleus of an atom is less than the total number of protons in the nucleus of
atom.
• Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged
particles.
• Due to more number of positively charged particles (protons) than the negatively
charged particles (electrons) in an atom, the overall net electric charge of an atom
becomes positive. Such an atom is called as positive ion.
10
 Continued….

• Let us see the positive ion as shown in figure below.

• The total number of electrons orbiting the nucleus of atom is 6 and the total
number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is 7.
• Positively charged particles (Protons) are more than the negatively charged
particles (electrons). Therefore, the total electric charge of the atom is positive.

11
 Negative ion

• If an electrically neutral atom gains one or more electrons then the total number
of electrons orbiting the nucleus of an atom is greater or more than the total
number of protons in the nucleus of a atom.
• Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged
particles.
• Due to less number of positively charged particles (protons) than the negatively
charged particles (electrons) in an atom, the overall net electric charge of an atom
becomes negative.
• Such an atom is called as negative ion.

12
 Continued….

• Let us see negative ion as shown in figure below.

• The total number of electrons orbiting the nucleus of atom is 8 where as the
total number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is 7.
• Positively charged particles (Protons) are less than the negatively charged
particles (electrons).
• Therefore, the total electric charge of the atom is negative.

13
 Chemical bond

• Generally, bonding refers to a process of joining two or more objects or things that
makes them stick together.
• This bonding occurs due to the force present between them.
• For example, the gravitational force of attraction present between the earth and
sun makes them stick together.
• Similarly, the electrostatic force of attraction between the opposite charges
(positive and negative charges) makes them stick together.
• The process by which force of attraction between the atoms or ions or opposite
charges that makes them stick together is called chemical bonding.
• While joining the charged particles, they do not touch physically with each other.
• The noncontact force present between the opposite charges makes them stick
together without any physical contact.

14
 Electric field
• An electric field is a region present around the positive and negative charges up to
a certain point within which other charged particles will experience a force.
• If a charged particle is placed within the electric field of other charged particle
then it will experience a force.
• This force may be repulsive or attractive.
• If two charged particles of same charge are placed close to each other, they get
repelled.
• On the other hand, if two charged particles of opposite charge are placed close to
each other, they get attracted.
• The electric field around a charged particle is represented by some imaginary lines
of force.
• The direction of these imaginary lines of force or electric lines of force is different
for positive and negative charges.
• For negative charge, the electric lines of force move towards the centre of charge
from a given point whereas for positive charge the electric lines of force move
away from the centre of charge to a given point.

15
 Continued….

• If two opposite charges (positive and negative) are placed close to each other, the
electric lines of force around a positively charged particle always try move away
from the center of positive charge towards the negative charge.
• On the other hand, the electric lines of force around a negatively charged particle
pull the electric lines of force of the positive charge towards the negative charge
• This makes the two opposite charges stick together.
• The electrostatic force of attraction between the opposite charges, which makes
them stick together, is called chemical bonding.

16
 Types of chemical bonds
• Chemical bonding occurs in many different ways.
• The three main types of chemical bonding include covalent bonds, ionic bonds,
and metallic bonds.
Covalent bond
• The covalent bond is a type of chemical bond that occurs due to the sharing of
valence electrons between the atoms.
• When two atoms come close to each other, one or more valence electrons of two
atoms are shared with each other.

• Hence, one or more valence electrons of both the atoms will experience a force of
attraction from the nucleus of the parent atom as well as from the nucleus of a
neighboring atom.
• This causes both the atoms stick together.
• The electrostatic force of attraction between the atoms, which makes them stick
together, is called covalent bonding.
17
 Ionic bond
• The ionic bond is a type of chemical bond, which makes the positive and negative ions
stick together.
• The electrostatic force of attraction present between the oppositely charged atoms or
ions makes them stick together.
• Generally, atoms are electrically neutral (having equal number of electrons and
protons).
• However, if an atom loses or gains an electron, it will become a charged atom or ion.

• If an atom loses an electron, it will become a positively charged atom or positive ion.
• On the other hand, if an atom gains an extra electron, it will become a negatively
charged atom or negative ion.
• When two opposite charged atoms (positive and negative ion) are placed close to each
other, the electrostatic force of attraction between the two ions makes them sticks
together.
18
 Metallic bond
• Metallic bond is a type of chemical bond formed in the metals due to the
electrostatic force of attraction between the positive ions and the free electrons.

• In metals, even at low temperature, large number of free electrons is generated.

• These electrons move freely from one place to another place by carrying the
electric charge or electric current.
• Hence, metals are called as good conductors of electricity.

19
 Ionic bond
• The electrostatic force of attraction between positive ion and negative ion that
holds them together is called ionic bond.
• Ionic bond is also called as electrovalent bond.
• The atom that gains one or more electrons (or) loses one or more electrons is
called an ion.
• When the atom loses one or more electrons it will become a positive ion.
• Similarly, when the atom gains one or more electrons it will become negative ion.
• As we know, opposite charges attract and like charges repel each other. Similarly,
opposite ions attract and like ions repel each other.
• In ionic bonding, one atom donates an electron to the other atom.
• Ionic bond requires at least one electron donor atom and one electron acceptor
atom.
• When two opposite ions i.e, positive ion and negative ion; are placed close to
each other they attract because of the electrostatic force of attraction present
between them.
• This attraction between the ions holds them together to form an ionic bond.
20
 Energy bands in solids

• In a single isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit have definite energy
associated with it.

• But in case of solids, all the atoms are close to each other, so the energy levels of
outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighboring atoms.

• When two single or isolated atoms are bring close to each other then the
outermost orbit electrons of two atoms are interact or shared with each other.

• i.e, the electrons in the outermost orbit of one atom experience an attractive force
from the nearest or neighboring atomic nucleus.

n=3 n=3 n=3

n=2 n=2 n=2

n=1 n=1 n=1

Atom 1 Atom 2 Atom 1 + 2

21
 Energy bands in solids continued……

• Due to this, the energies of the electrons will not be in same level, the energy
levels of electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of the
original energy level of the electron.

• The electrons in same orbit exhibits different energy levels. The grouping of this
different energy levels is called energy band.

• However, the energy levels of inner orbit electrons are not much affected by the
presence of neighboring atoms.

• A solid will have millions of atoms close together in a lattice so these

energy levels will creates bands each separated by a gap.

22
 Important energy bands in solids

• There are number of energy bands in solids but three of them are very important.

• These three energy bands are important to understand the behavior of solids.

• These energy bands are

• Valence band
• Conduction band
• Forbidden band or forbidden gap

23
 Valence band
• The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the
valence electrons or outermost orbit electrons is called as valence band.

• Valence band is present below the conduction band as shown in figure.

• Electrons in the valence band have lower energy than the electrons in conduction
band.

• The electrons present in the valence band are loosely bound to the nucleus of atom.

24
 Conduction band

• The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the
free electrons is called as conduction band.

• Generally, the conduction band is empty but when external energy is applied, the
electrons in the valence band jumps in to the conduction band and becomes free
electrons.

• Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the electrons in valence
band.

• The conduction band electrons are not bound to the nucleus of atom.

25
 Forbidden gap
• The energy gap which is present between the valence band and conduction band by
separating these two energy bands is called as forbidden band or forbidden gap.

• In solids, electrons cannot stay in forbidden gap because there is no allowed energy
state in this region.

• Forbidden gap is the major factor for determining the electrical conductivity of a
solid.

• The classification of materials as insulators, conductors and semiconductors is mainly

depends on forbidden gap.
• The energy associated with forbidden band is called energy gap and it is measured in
unit electron volt (eV).
1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J
• The applied external energy in the form of heat or light must be equal to the forbidden
gap in order to push an electron from valence band to the conduction band.

26
 Classification of materials based on forbidden gap
• Forbidden gap plays a major role for determining the electrical conductivity of
material.

• Based on the forbidden gap materials are classified into three types, they are

• Insulators
• Metals/Conductors
• semiconductors
Difference in conductivity

27
 Insulators
The materials which does not allow the flow of
electric current through them are called insulators.
Insulators are also called as poor conductors of
electricity.

• Normally, in insulators, the valence band is fully occupied with electrons due to
sharing of outer most orbit electrons with the neighboring atoms where as
conduction band is empty, i.e, no electrons are present in conduction band.

• The forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band is very large in
insulators.

• The energy gap of insulator is approximately equal to 15 electron volts (eV).

28
 Continued….

• The electrons in valence band cannot move because they are locked up between
the atoms.

• In order move the valence band electrons into conduction band, large amount of
external energy is applied which is equal to the forbidden gap.

• But in insulators, this is practically impossible to move the valence band electrons
in to conduction band.

• Rubber, wood, diamond, plastic are some examples of insulators.

• Insulators such as plastics are used for coating of electrical wires. These
insulators prevent the flow of electricity to unwanted points and protect us from
electric shocks.

29
 Metals/Conductors
• The materials which easily allow the flow of electric current through them are
called as conductors.
• Metals such as copper, silver, iron, aluminum etc. are good conductors of
electricity.
In a conductor, valence band and
conduction band overlap each other as
shown in figure.
Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a
conductor.

• A small amount of applied external energy provides enough energy for the
valence band electrons to move in to conduction band. Therefore, more number
of valence band electrons can easily moves in to the conduction band. 30
 Continued….

• When valence band electrons moves to conduction band, they becomes free
electrons.

• The electrons present in the conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of a
atom.

• In conductors, large number of electrons are present in conduction band at room

temperature.

• i.e, conduction band is almost full with electrons whereas valence band is
partially occupied with electrons.

• The electrons present in the conduction band moves freely by carrying the electric
current from one point to other.

31
 Semiconductors
• The material which has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an
insulator is called as semiconductor.

• Silicon, germanium and graphite are some examples of semiconductors

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between

valence band and conduction band is very small.
It has a forbidden gap of about 1 electron volt (eV).

• At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and
conduction band is empty because the electrons in the valence band does not have
enough energy to move in to conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves
as an insulator at low temperature.
32
 Continued….

• However, at room temperature some of the electrons in valence band gains

enough energy in the form of heat and moves in to conduction band.

• When the temperature goes on increasing, the number of valence band electrons
moving in to conduction band is also increases.

• This shows that electrical conductivity of the semiconductor increases with

increase in temperature.

• The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature.

i.e. a semiconductor has negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.

Semiconductors are the foundation of modern electronics, including transistors,

Light-Emitting diodes, solar cells etc.
33
 Continued….
• In semiconductors, electric current is carried by two types of charge carriers -
they are electrons and holes.

Hole
The absence of electron in a particular
place in an atom is called as hole.

Hole is a electric charge carrier which has

positive charge.

• The electric charge of hole is equal to electric charge of electron but have
opposite polarity.
• When a small amount of external energy is applied, then the electrons in the
valence band moves in to conduction band and leaves a vacancy in valence band.
This vacancy is called as hole. 34
 Semiconductor Materials
• Elemental semiconductors – Si and Ge (column IV of periodic table) –compose of
single species of atoms
• Compound semiconductors – combinations of atoms of column III and column V
and some atoms from column II and VI. (combination of two atoms results in
binary compounds)
• There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and four-elements
(quaternary) compounds such as InGaAsP.

35
 Intrinsic semiconductor
• Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.

• Silicon and germanium are the most common examples of intrinsic

semiconductors.

• Both these semiconductors are most frequently used in the manufacturing of

transistors, diodes and other electronic components.

• Intrinsic semiconductor is also called as undoped semiconductor or I-type

semiconductor.

• In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band is

equal to the number of holes in the valence band.

• Therefore the overall electric charge of an atom is neutral.

36
 Atomic structure of silicon and germanium
• Silicon is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of
protons. The atomic number of silicon is 14 i.e. 14 protons. The number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom is called atomic number. Silicon atom has 14
electrons (two electrons in first orbit, eight electrons in second orbit and 4
electrons in the outermost orbit).

• Germanium is a substance consisting of atoms which all have the same number of
protons. The atomic number of germanium is 32 i.e. 32 protons. Germanium has
32 electrons ( 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 electrons in second orbit, 18 electrons in
third orbit and 4 electrons in the outermost orbit.
37
 Covalent bonding in silicon and germanium
The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight electrons. The atom
which has eight electrons in the outermost orbit is said to be completely filled and
most stable. But the outermost orbit of silicon has only four electrons. Silicon atom
needs four more electrons to become most stable. Silicon atom forms four covalent
bonds with the four neighboring atoms. In covalent bonding, each valence electron
is shared by two atoms.

38
 Intrinsic carrier concentration
• In intrinsic semiconductor, when the valence electrons broke the covalent bond
and jumps into the conduction band, two types of charge carriers gets generated.
They are free electrons and holes.

• The number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band or the number
of holes per unit volume in the valence band is called intrinsic carrier
concentration.

• The number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is called
electron-carrier concentration and the number of holes per unit volume in the
valence band is called as hole-carrier concentration.

• In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons generated in the

conduction band is equal to the number of holes generated in the valence band.

• Hence the electron-carrier concentration is equal to the hole-carrier

concentration.
39
 Continued….

• It can be written as,

ni = n = p
where n = electron-carrier concentration, p = hole-carrier concentration and ni =
intrinsic carrier concentration
• The hole concentration in the valence band is given as

• The electron concentration in the conduction band is given as

where KB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of intrinsic

semiconductor, Nc is the effective density of states in conduction band and Nv is the
effective density of states in valence band.

40
 Extrinsic semiconductor
• The semiconductor in which impurities are added is called extrinsic
semiconductor.

• When the impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes an

extrinsic semiconductor.

• The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor is called doping.

• Doping increases the electrical conductivity of semiconductor.

• Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic

semiconductor.

• Hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used for the manufacturing of electronic
devices such as diodes, transistors etc.

41
• The number of free electrons and holes in extrinsic semiconductor are not equal.
 Types of impurities
• Two types of impurities are added to the semiconductor. They are pentavalent and
trivalent impurities.

• Pentavalent impurities

• Pentavalent impurity atoms have 5 valence electrons.

The various examples of pentavalent

impurity atoms include Phosphorus (P),
Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), etc. The
atomic structure of pentavalent atom
(phosphorus) and trivalent atom (boron) is
shown in side fig.

• Trivalent impurity atoms have 3 valence electrons. The various examples of

trivalent impurities include Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al).
42
 Classification of Extrinsic semiconductors based on impurities added

• Based on the type of impurities added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified in

to two types.

• N-type semiconductor
• P-type semiconductor

43
 N-type semiconductor
• When pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon
or germanium), then it is said to be an n-type semiconductor.
• Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc are called donor
impurity.
Let us consider, pentavalent impurity
phosphorus is added to silicon as shown
in below figure.
Phosphorus atom has 5 valence electrons
and silicon has 4 valence electrons.
Phosphorus atom has one excess valence
electron than silicon. The four valence
electrons of each phosphorus atom form
4 covalent bonds with the 4 neighboring
silicon atoms. The fifth valence electron of the phosphorus atom cannot able to
form the covalent bond with the silicon atom because silicon atom does not have
the fifth valence electron to form the covalent bond.
44
 Continued….
• Thus, fifth valence electron of phosphorus atom does not involve in the formation
of covalent bonds.

• Hence, it is free to move and not attached to the parent atom.

• This shows that each phosphorus atom donates one free electron.

• Therefore, all the pentavalent impurities are called donors.

• The number of free electrons depends on the amount of impurity (phosphorus)

added to the silicon.

• A small addition of impurity (phosphorus) generates millions of free electrons.

45
 Charge on n-type semicondctor
• So many people think that n-type semiconductor has large number of free
electrons.

• So, the total electric charge of n-type semiconductor is negative.

• But this assumption is wrong.

• Even though n-type semiconductor has large number of free electrons, but these
free electrons is given by the pentavalent atoms that are electrically neutral.

• Therefore, the total electric charge of n-type semiconductor is also neutral.

46
 P-type semiconductor
• When the trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor
(silicon or germanium), then it is said to be an p-type semiconductor.

• Trivalent impurities such as Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al)

etc are called acceptor impurity.

• Let us consider, trivalent impurity boron is added to silicon as shown in below

figure. Boron atom has three valence electrons and silicon has four valence
electrons. The three valence electrons of each boron atom form 3 covalent bonds
with the 3 neighboring silicon atoms.

47
 Continued….
• In the fourth covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence electron,
while the boron atom has no valence electron to contribute.

• Thus, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete with shortage of one electron. This
missing electron is called hole.

• This shows each boron atom accept one electron to fill the hole.

• Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors.

• A small addition of impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.

48
 The Fermi level
• Electrons in solids obey Fermi - Dirac statistics:

1
f (E) 
1  exp ( E  E F ) / kT 
k is Boltzmann’s constant, k=8.62ּ10-5 eV/K=1.38 10-23 J/K.
The following consideration are used in the development of this statistics:
1. Indistinguishability of the electrons,
2. Wave nature of electron,
3. Pauli exclusion principle.

49
 Continued….
The function f(E) called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability that
an available energy state at E will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T.
The quantity EF is called the Fermi level, and it represents an important quantity in the
analysis of semiconductor behavior. For an energy E = EF the occupation probability is

f ( E F )  1  exp ( E F  E F ) / kT 
1 1 1
 
11 2
This is the probability for electrons to occupy the Fermi level.

50
 The Fermi – Dirac distribution function
At T=0K f(E) has rectangular shape
the denominator of the exponent is
1/(1+0)=1 when (E<Ef), exp. negative
1/(1+)-0 when (E>Ef), exp. positive

At 0 К every available energy state up to EF is filled with

electrons, and all states above EF are empty.
At temperatures higher than 0 K, some probability f(E) exists
for states above the Fermi level to be filled with electrons and
there is a corresponding probability [1 - f(E)] that states below
EF are empty.
The Fermi function is symmetrical about EF for all temperatures. The
probability exists for
state E above EF is filled – f(EF+ E)
state E below EF is filled – [1- f(EF - E)]

The symmetry of the distribution of empty and filled states about EF makes the Fermi level a natural
reference point in calculations of electron and hole concentrations in semiconductors.
In applying the Fermi-Dirac distribution to semiconductors, we must recall that f(E) is the probability of
occupancy of an available state at E. Thus if there is no available state at E (e.g., in the band gap of a
51
semiconductor), there is no possibility of finding an electron there.
 Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentrations of electrons and
holes in a semiconductor if the densities of available states in the valence and conduction bands
are known. The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is

n0   f ( E ) N ( E )dE
Ec

where N(E)dE is the density of states (cm-3) in the energy range dE.
The subscript 0 used for the electron and hole concentration symbols (n0, p0) indicates
equilibrium conditions.
The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is the product of the
density of states and the probability of occupancy f(E). Thus the total electron
concentration is the integral over the entire conduction band.
N(E) is proportional to E1/2, so the density of states in the conduction band increases
with electron energy. On the other hand, the Fermi function becomes extremely small
for large energies. The result is that the product f(E)N(E) decreases rapidly above Ec,
and very few electrons occupy energy states far above the conduction band edge.
Similarly, the probability of finding an empty state (hole) in the valence band [1 - f(E)]
decreases rapidly below Ev, and most holes occupy states near the top of the valence
band. 52
 Location of Fermi Level of energy in Intrinsic SC
• The electrical properties of SC are determined by
i) the no of electrons and holes/unit volume i.e. the concentration of charge carriers
ii) the mobility of electrons and holes which is defined as average drift velocity/unit
electric field.

• Now the no. of electrons/unit volume in the energy range E to E+dE in the conduction
band is given by
dn = Z(E) F(E) dE
Where F(E) is the Fermi-Dirac distribution function and Z(E) is the density of states.

• In free electron theory of metal, Z(E) α E1/2 but in case of SC, Z(E) is a complicated
function of E and it vanishes in the forbidden energy gap.
• Fermi level of energy EF in case of SC is usually located somewhere in between VB
and CB.
• To have an idea regarding the location of FL within an Intrinsic SC, a simplified
model comes into consideration.

53
Location of Fermi Level based on simplified model

54
Location of Fermi Level based on simplified model continued..

55
 Location of Fermi Level based on Improved model
• But experimental observation confirmed that the location of FL within the forbidden
energy gap in an ISC is not fixed.

• It is shifted either upward or downward from its middle position with the variation of
temp.

• To explain this nature, a particular model comes which is known as Improved model.

• In this model it is considered that the width of the allowed energy band i.e. VB and
CB are comparable with the width of the forbidden energy gap of the ISC.

56
Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium and Location of
Fermi Level based on Improved model continued…

57
Location of Fermi Level based on Improved model continued…

58
Location of Fermi Level based on Improved model continued…

59
Location of Fermi Level based on Improved model continued…

60
Density of Electrons in CB and density of Holes in VB interms
of Bandgap

61
 Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
The conduction band electron concentration is simply the effective density of states at Ec times
the probability of occupancy at Ec:

n0  N c f ( E c )
In this expression, we assume the Fermi level EF lies at least several kT below the conduction
band. Then the exponential term is large compared with unity, and the Fermi function f(Ec) can
be simplified as

 exp  ( Ec  EF ) / kT 
1
f ( Ec ) 
1  exp ( Ec  EF ) / kT 
Since kT at room temperature is only 0.026 eV, this is generally a good approximation. For this
condition the concentration of electrons in the conduction band

n0  N c exp ( Ec  EF ) / kT 
The above equation indicates, the electron concentration increases as EF moves closer to the
conduction band. It can be shown that the effective density of states Nc is
2mn* kT 3 / 2
N c  2( 2
)
h
By similar arguments, the concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0  N v [1  f ( Ev )] 62
Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
The probability of finding an empty state1at Ev, is
1  f ( Ev )  1   exp  ( E F  Ev ) / kT 
1  exp ( Ev  E F ) / kT 
for EF larger than Ev by several kT. From these equations, the concentration of holes in the
valence band is
p0  N v exp ( EF  Ev ) / kT 
The effective density of states in the valence band reduced to the band edge is
2m*p kT
N v  2( )3/ 2
h2
The above equation predicts that the hole concentration increases as EF moves closer to the
valence band.

The electron and hole concentrations predicted by Eqs. (1) and (2) are valid whether the material
is intrinsic or doped, provided thermal equilibrium is maintained. Thus for intrinsic material, EF
lies at some intrinsic level Ei near the middle of the band gap, and the intrinsic electron and hole
concentrations are
ni  N c exp ( Ec  Ei ) / kT  , pi  N v exp ( Ei  E63v ) / kT 
 The product of n0 and p0 at equilibrium is a constant for a particular material and
temperature, even if the doping is varied:

n0 p0  ( N c exp ( Ec  E F ) / kT )( N v exp ( E F  Ev ) / kT ) 


 N c N v exp  ( Ec  Ev ) / kT   N c N v exp  E g / kT 
ni pi  ( N c exp ( Ec  Ei ) / kT )( N v exp ( Ei  Ev ) / kT ) 

 N c N v exp  E g / kT 
For intrinsic semiconductor, electron and hole concentrations are equal (since the
carriers are created in pairs), ni = pi ; thus the intrinsic concentration is

ni  N c N v exp(  Eg / 2kT )

The constant product of electron and hole concentrations can be written conveniently as

n 0 p0  ni2
This is an important relation, and we shall use it extensively in later calculations. The intrinsic
concentration for Si at room temperature is approximately ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.
 Majority and minority charge carriers
• The charge carriers that are present in large quantity are called majority charge carriers.

• The majority charge carriers carry most of the electric charge or electric current in the
semiconductor.

• Hence, majority charge carriers are mainly responsible for electric current flow in the
semiconductor.

• The charge carriers that are present in small quantity are called minority charge carriers.

• The minority charge carriers carry very small amount of electric charge or electric current in the
semiconductor.

65
 Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor
• The semiconductors that are in pure form are called intrinsic semiconductors.

• In intrinsic semiconductor, the total number of negative charge carriers (free electrons) is equal
to the total number of positive charge carriers (holes or vacancy).

• Total negative charge carriers = Total positive charge carriers

66
 Majority and minority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor

• When the pentavalent atoms such as Phosphorus or Arsenic are added to the intrinsic
semiconductor, an n-type semiconductor is formed.

• In n-type semiconductor, large number of free electrons is present.

• Hence, free electrons are the majority charge carriers in the n-type semiconductor. The free
electrons (majority charge carriers) carry most of the electric charge or electric current in the n-
type semiconductor.

• In n-type semiconductor, very small number of holes is present.

• Hence, holes are the minority charge carriers in the n-type semiconductor. The holes (minority
charge carriers) carry only a small amount of electric charge or electric current in the n-type
semiconductor.

• The total number of negative charge carriers (free electrons) in n-type semiconductor is greater
than the total number of positive charge carriers (holes) in the n-type semiconductor.

67
• Total negative charge carriers > Total positive charge carriers
 Majority and minority charge carriers in p-type semiconductor

• When the trivalent atoms such as Boron or Gallium are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, a
p-type semiconductor is formed.

• In p-type semiconductor, large number of holes is present. Hence, holes are the majority charge
carriers in the p-type semiconductor.

• The holes (majority charge carriers) carry most of the electric charge or electric current in the
p-type semiconductor.

• In p-type semiconductor, very small number of free electrons is present.

• Hence, free electrons are the minority charge carriers in the p-type semiconductor. The free
electrons (minority charge carriers) carry only a small amount of electric current in the p-type
semiconductor.

• The total number of negative charge carriers (free electrons) in p-type semiconductor is less
than the total number of positive charge carriers (holes) in the p-type semiconductor.

68
• Total negative charge carriers < Total positive charge carriers
 Generation and recombination of carriers

Generation of carriers (free electrons and holes)

• The process by which free electrons and holes are generated in pair is called generation of
carriers.

• When electrons in a valence band get enough energy, then they will absorb this energy and
jumps into the conduction band.

• The electron which is jumped into a conduction band is called free electron and the place from
where electron left is called hole.

• Likewise, two type of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) gets generated.
Recombination of carriers (free electrons and holes)
• The process by which free electrons and the holes get eliminated is called recombination of
carriers.

• When free electron in the conduction band falls into a hole in the valence band, then the free
electron and hole gets eliminated.
69
 Law of mass action

• The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons in the
conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a fixed
temperature and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity added.

• Mathematically it is represented as
np = ni2 = constant
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration, n is number of electrons in conduction
band p is number of holes in valence band

70
 Law of mass action for extrinsic semiconductor

• The law of mass action is applied for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
• For extrinsic semiconductor the law of mass action states that the product of majority
carriers and minority carriers is constant at fixed temperature and is independent of
amount of donor and acceptor impurity added.
Law of mass action for n-type semiconductor
• The law of mass action for n-type semiconductor is mathematically written as
nn pn = ni2 = constant
where nn= number of electrons in n-type semiconductor, pn = number of holes in n-type
semiconductor
• The electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers in n-type
semiconductor.
• In n-type semiconductor, as the number of electrons (majority) in the conduction band
increases the number of holes (minority) in the valence band decreases.
• Therefore, the product of electrons (majority) and holes (minority) remains constant at
fixed temperature.

71
 Law of mass action for extrinsic semiconductor

Law of mass action for p-type semiconductor

• The law of mass action for p-type semiconductor is mathematically written as
pp np = ni2 = constant

where pp = number of holes in p-type semiconductor, np = number of electrons in p-type

semiconductor.

• The holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers in p-type
semiconductor.

• In p-type semiconductor, as the number of holes (majority) in the valence band

increases the number of electrons in the conduction band (minority) decreases.

• Therefore, the product of holes (majority) and electrons (minority) remains constant
at fixed temperature.

72
 Drift current

• The flow of charge carriers due to the applied voltage or electric field is
called drift current.

• In a semiconductor, there are two types of charge carriers, they are

electrons and holes.

• When the voltage is applied to a semiconductor, the free electrons move

towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes move towards the
negative terminal of a battery.

• Electrons are the negatively charged particles and holes are the
positively charged particles.

• As we already know that like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract each other. 73
 Drift current continued……

• Hence, the electrons (negatively charged particle) are attracted towards

the positive terminal of a battery and holes (positively charged particle)
are attracted towards the negative terminal.

74
 Drift current continued……

• In a semiconductor, the electrons always try to move in a straight line

towards the positive terminal of the battery.

• But, due to continuous collision with the atoms they change the
direction of flow.

• Each time the electron strikes an atom, it bounces back in a random

direction.

• The applied voltage does not stop the collision and random motion of
electrons, but it causes the electrons to drift towards the positive
terminal.

• The average velocity that an electron or hole achieved due to the

applied voltage or electric field is called drift velocity. 75
 Drift current continued……

• The drift velocity of electrons is given by

Vn = µnE

• The drift velocity of holes is given by

Vp = µpE

Where vn = drift velocity of electrons

vp = drift velocity of holes
µn = mobility of electrons
µp = mobility of holes
E = applied electric field

76
 Drift current continued……
• The drift current density due to free electrons is given by
Jn= enµnE

and the drift current density due to holes is given by

Jp = epµpE
Where Jn = drift current density due to electrons
Jp = drift current density due to holes
e = charge of an electron = 1.602 × 10-19 Coulombs (C).
n = number of electrons
p = number of holes

Then the total drift current density is

J = Jn + Jp= enµnE + epµpE

J = e (nµn + pµp) E
77
 Electron and hole mobility
Electron mobility
• The ability of an electron to move through a metal or semiconductor, in
the presence of applied electric field is called electron mobility.
• It is mathematically written as
Vn = µnE

Where vn = drift velocity of electrons, µn = mobility of electrons and E =

applied electric field

78
 Electron mobility continued…..
• Let us consider a semiconductor that consists of large number of free
electrons.

• When there is no voltage or electric field applied across the

semiconductor, the free electrons moves randomly.

• However, when the voltage or electric field is applied across the

semiconductor, each free electron starts to move more quickly in
particular direction.

• Electrons move very fast in vacuum. However, in metals or

semiconductors, free electrons do not move very fast instead they move
with a finite average velocity, called drift velocity.

• Drift velocity is directly proportional to electric field.

79
 Electron mobility continued…..
• Hence, when the electric field increases, drift velocity also increases.

• However, mobility of electrons is independent of applied electric field

i.e. change in electric field does not change the mobility of electrons.

• The SI unit of electric field is V/m, and the SI unit of velocity is m/s.

• Thus, the SI unit of mobility is m2/ (V.s).

80
 Hole mobility
• The ability of a hole to move through a metal or semiconductor, in the
presence of applied electric field is called hole mobility.

• It is mathematically written as
Vp = µpE

Where vp = drift velocity of holes , µp = mobility of holes and E =

applied electric field

81
 Diffusion current
• The process by which, charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a
semiconductor moves from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration is called diffusion.

• The region in which more number of electrons is present is called

higher concentration region and the region in which less number of
electrons is present is called lower concentration region.

• Current produced due to motion of charge carriers from a region of

higher concentration to a region of lower concentration is called
diffusion current.

• Diffusion process occurs in a semiconductor that is non-uniformly

doped.

82
 Diffusion current continued…..
• Consider an n-type semiconductor that is non-uniformly doped as
shown in below figure.

• Due to the non-uniform doping, more number of electrons is present at

left side whereas lesser number of electrons is present at right side of
the semiconductor material.
The number of electrons
present at left side of
semiconductor material is
more. So, these electrons
will experience a repulsive
force from each other.

83
 Diffusion current continued…..
• The electrons present at left side of the semiconductor material will
move to right side to reach the uniform concentration of electrons.

• Thus, the semiconductor material achieves equal concentration of

electrons.

• Electrons that moves from left side to right side will constitute current.
This current is called diffusion current.

• In p-type semiconductor, the diffusion process occurs in the similar

manner.

• Both drift and diffusion current occurs in semiconductor devices.

Diffusion current occurs without an external voltage or electric field
applied. Diffusion current does not occur in a conductor. 84
 Concentration gradient
• The diffusion current density is directly proportional to the
concentration gradient.

• Concentration gradient is the difference in concentration of electrons or

holes in a given area.

• If the concentration gradient is high, then the diffusion current density

is also high.

• Similarly, if the concentration gradient is low, then the diffusion current

density is also low.

• The concentration gradient for n-type semiconductor is given by

85
 Concentration gradient

• The concentration gradient for n-type semiconductor is given by

• The concentration gradient for p-type semiconductor is given by

where Jn = diffusion current density due to electrons, Jp = diffusion

current density due to holes

86
 Diffusion current density
• The diffusion current density due to electrons is given by

Where Dn is the diffusion coefficent of electrons.

• The diffusion current density due to holes is given by

Where Dp is the diffusion coefficent of holes.

87
 Diffusion current density
• The total current density due to electrons is the sum of drift and
diffusion currents.
Jn = Drift current + Diffusion current

• The total current density due to holes is the sum of drift and diffusion
currents.
Jp = Drift current + Diffusion current

• The total current density due to electrons and holes is given by

J = Jn + Jp
88
Mobility, current density and Conductivity

89
 Mobility, current density and Conductivity continued….
• Consider a cylindrical semiconductor of length l and area of cross
section A.
• Suppose v is the drift velocity of the carriers due to an electric field E
applied along the length of the cylinder.
• Therefore, the time taken by a carrier to travel the distance l is given by
t = l/v.
If nc denotes the carrier concentration then the total no of carriers
contained in the cylinder is ncAl.
The total amount of charge inside the cylinder is ncAle where e is the
charge of a carrier.
This amount of charge passes through the cross section in time t.
Hence, charge crossing cross section/second = ncAle/t.
But by definition, I = ncAle/t.

90
 Mobility, current density and Conductivity continued….

• Therefore, current density, J = I/A = ncel/t = ncev

J = nceµE

Conductivity, σ = J/E = nceµE/E = nceµ

91
 Expression for conductivity in SC
• If the conductivity of a SC due to the electrons is denoted by σn then
σn = neµn
Where n is the electron concentration and µn is the electron mobility.
• Similarly, the conductivity of a SC due to the holes is given by
σp = peµp
Where p is the hole concentration and µp is the hole mobility.
• In the presence of an electric field, the currents due to electrons and
holes will be in the same direction since they carry opposite charges.
• Hence the overall conductivity of a SC containing both electrons and
holes is
σ = σn + σp = e(nµn + pµp).
For an intrinsic SC, n = p = ni. Therefore, the conductivity of an
intrinsic SC is
σint = e ni(µn + µp).
92
 Mobility and Effective mass
• When an external electric field is applied to a SC, the charge carriers
experience forces not only due to this applied field but also due to the
field produced by the internal crystal potential.

• The effect of internal crystal field may be shown to modify the mass of
the carriers in such a way that the carriers respond to the externally
applied field with this modified mass, obeying the laws of mechanics.

• This modified mass is called effective mass of the carrier and is

generally different from the free electron mass.

93
 Mobility and Effective mass continued….
• When a field E is applied, the rate at which momentum is gained from the field by a
carrier of charge e is eE according to Newton’s 2nd law of motion.

• The rate of loss of momentum due to scattering can be written as m*v/τ where m* is
the effective mass of the carrier, v is the drift velocity and τ is a quantity called
relaxation time.

• The relaxation time has the significance that when the exciting force is removed, the
momentum falls to 1/exp(1) of its initial value in time τ.

• In the steady state, the rate of gain of momentum from the field is equal to the rate of
loss of momentum due to scattering.
• i.e. eE = m*v/τ.
• Now mobility of the carrier is µ = v/E = eτ/m*
• Generally the effective mass of holes is greater than the effective mass of electrons.
• Hence holes are less mobile than the electrons (µp < µn).

94