Digital Image Processing

DR. MANSOOR AHMAD HASHMI, FAST-NUCES, LAHORE,

E-MAIL: MANSOOR.AHMED@NU.EDU.PK
 Pixel & Digital Number
• The Pixel or “Picture Element” is a data element having both spatial and spectral
aspects.
• The spatial variable defines the apparent size of the resolution cell (i.e., the area on the
ground represented by the data values).
• The spectral variable defines the intensity of spectral response for that cell in a
particular channel.
• The pixel is also referred to as resolution cell of a scene which is considered as the
smallest area in a scene, considered a unit of data.

• Spectral information: The information conveyed by the spectral response of individual

resolution cells in the scene.

• The position of any pixel is determined on an x-y coordinate system.

• Each pixel has a numerical value called a Digital Number (DN) that records the
intensity of electro-magnetic energy measured for the ground resolution cell
represented by that pixel.
• Digital Numbers range from zero to some higher number on a gray scale depending
upon the quantization level of the sensor.
Pixel
The cells are sensed one after another along the line.
In the sensor, each cell is associated with a pixel that is
tied to a microelectronic detector

Pixel is a short abbreviation for Picture Element

a pixel being a single point in a graphic image

Each pixel is characterized

by some single value of radiation
(e.g., reflectance) impinging on
a detector that is converted by
the photoelectric effect into electrons
2Q - Q is bit of each pixel
Gray Scale
It is a sequence of gray tones ranging from black to white. Gray level value is the
intensity value of a pixel in a gray level image.
 Histogram

It is the Graphical display of a set of data showing the frequency of

occurrence (along the vertical axis) of individual measurements or
values (along the horizontal axis); a frequency distribution.
Scene
In a passive remote sensing system, it is everything that occurs spatially
or temporally before the sensor, including the earth’s surface, the energy
source, and the atmosphere which the energy passes through as it
travels from the source to the earth and from the earth to the sensor.
 Image
It is the pictorial representation of a scene recorded by a remote sensing system irrespective
of the wavelength or imaging device used to produce it.

It is commonly restricted to representations acquired by non-photographic methods.

A photograph is also an image that records wavelength of from 0.3 to 0.9 micrometers and
which have interacted with light sensitive chemicals in a photographic film.

The image can be described in terms of certain fundamental properties regardless of the
wavelength at which the image is recorded.

These common fundamental properties are;

1. Scale
2. Brightness
3. Contrast
4. Resolution

Tone and texture of the image are functions of the fundamental properties.
Image (CONTD.)

The image may be described in strictly numerical terms on a three-

coordinate system with x and y locating each pixel and z giving digital
number (DN), which is displayed as a gray scale intensity value.

In a remote sensing system, images are, in general, originally recorded in

digital format (e.g Landsat)

An image recorded initially on photographic film or prints may be converted

into digital format by a process known as digitizing (scanning).
 Digital Image
• It is a numerical representation of the sampled field. Typically, the field represented is
the radiance of a scene viewed in some region of the electro-magnetic spectrum.

• A digital Image is an image f (x, y) which has been described both in spatial
coordinates and in brightness.

• Consider Digital Image as a matrix whose row and column indices identify a point in
the image and corresponding matrix element identifies the gray level at that point.

• A digital image can be constructed that describes Gravity or Magnetic Field Strength,
Topographic Relief, or computed variables such as thermal inertia.

• The digital image is generated by sampling and measuring the local field strength as a
number of points that are usually arranged in a rectilinear Pattern. The field strength
measured at each of these points is encoded as an integer.

• The digital image is actually an array of numbers which can be stored on magnetic
tape or disk.
Digital Image (CONTD.)
 Digital Images: remote sensed images can also be
represented in a computer as arrays of pixels (picture
elements), with each pixel corresponding to a digital
number, representing the brightness level of that pixel in
the image. In this case, the data are in a digital format.
These types of digital images are referred to as raster
images in which the pixels are arranged in rows and
columns
Two prime approaches in the use of remote sensing

 Standard photo-interpretation of scene content

 Use of digital image processing and classification
techniques that are generally the mainstay of
practical applications of information extracted from
sensor data sets
 ?
Image below, brighter portions relate to higher energy
levels
Landsat thematic mapper (TM)
Image Processing
 Computer-Assisted Scene Interpretation (CASI) ;
also called Image Processing
 The techniques fall into three broad categories:
 Image Restoration and Rectification
 Image Enhancement
 Image Classification
 Thereare a variety of CASI methods:
Contrast stretching, Band rationing, Band
transformation, Principal Component Analysis,
Edge Enhancement, Pattern Recognition, and
Unsupervised and Supervised Classification
Digital Image Processing

Is the manipulation of a digital image by computer and

is performed either to prepare an image for display and
interpretation, or to extract information from the image.
 Data visualization
The images that we view are visual representations
of the digital output from the sensor
 8-bit gray shade image is the case when the
sensor output is converted to one of 256 gray
shades (0 to 255)
 24-bit color does the same except in shades or
red, green, and blue
Image Processing: Pixel Values

 Pixel Values: The magnitude of the

electromagnetic energy captured in a digital
image is represented by positive digital numbers.
 The digital numbers are in the form of binary
digits (or 'bits') which vary from 0 to a selected
power of 2

Image Type Pixel Value Color Levels

8-bit image 28 = 256 0-255
16-bit image 216 = 65536 0-65535
24-bit image 224 = 16777216 0-16777215
Image Processing: Image Resolution

 Image Resolution: the resolution of a digital

image is dependent on the range in magnitude
(i.e. range in brightness) of the pixel value. With
a 2-bit image the maximum range in brightness
is 22 = 4 values ranging from 0 to 3, resulting in a
low resolution image. In an 8-bit image the
maximum range in brightness is 28 = 256 values
ranging from 0 to 255, which is a higher
resolution image
2-bit Image 8-bit Image
(4 grey levels) (256 grey levels)
Image Processing Procedures
 Image Restoration: most recorded images
are subject to distortion due to noise which
degrades the image. Two of the more
common errors that occur in multi-spectral
imagery are striping (or banding) and line
dropouts
Image Processing Procedures

 Dropped Lines are errors that occur in the sensor

response and/or data recording and
transmission which loses a row of pixels in the
image.
Procedure of Digital Image Processing
Image Interpretation
relies on one or both of these approaches:

Photointerpretation: the interpreter uses his/her knowledge and

experience of the real world to recognize scene objects
(features, classes, materials) in photo like renditions of the images
acquired by aerial or satellite surveys of the targets (land; sea;
atmospheric; planetary) that depict the targets as visual scenes
with variations of gray-scale tonal or color patterns (more
generally, spatial or spectral variability that mirror the differences
from place to place on the ground)

machine-processing manipulations (usually computer-based)

that analyze and reprocess the raw data into new visual or
numerical products, which then are interpreted either by
approach 1 or are subjected to appropriate decision-making
algorithms that identify and classify the scene objects into sets of
information
Image Interpretation

Elements (Keys) of Image Interpretation

The following eight elements are mostly used in image interpretation

1. Color
2. Tone
3. Texture
4. Pattern
5. Shape
6. Size
7. Shadow
8. Association
Color
Color (CONTD)
Color (CONTD)
Example of color composition
Sample of Color Composition from
Digital Data
Tone

• The continuous gray scale varying from white to black is called

tone.

• In panchromatic photographs, any object will reflect its unique

tone according to the reflectance.
•
• For example, dry sand reflects white, while wet sand reflects
black. In black and white near infrared photographs, water is
black and healthy vegetation white to light gray.

• Tone denotes the spectral reflectance of the features

Texture

Texture is a group of repeated small patterns. For

example, homogenous grassland exhibits a smooth
texture, coniferous forest usually shows a coarse texture.

However, this will depend upon the scale of the

photograph or image
Pattern

Pattern is a regular, usually repeated, shape in respect to

an object.

For example, Rows of houses or a apartments, regularly-

spaced rice fields, interchange of highways, orchards and
so on, can provide information from their unique patterns.
Shape

The specific shape of an object, as it is viewed from above, will be

imaged on a vertical photograph.

Therefore, the shape from a vertical viewpoint should be known.

For example, the crown of a conifer tree looks like a circle, while
that of a deciduous tree has an irregular shape.

Airport, factories, and so on can also be identified by their shapes.

Size

A proper photo-scale (image resolution) should be selected

depending on the purpose of the interpretation.

The approximate size of an object can be measured by multiplying

the length of the image by the inverse of the photo-scale.
Shadow

Shadow is usually a visual obstacle for image interpretation.

Shadow can also give height information about a towed, tall

building, mountain ranges and others, as well as shape information
from non- vertical perspective such as the shape of a bridge.
Association

A specific combination of elements geographic characteristics and

configuration of the surrounding or the context of an object can
provide the user with specific information for image interpretation
Interpretation key for Forestry
A Sample of LANDSAT MSS Images’
Interpretation key
 Classification

Classification of a remotely- sensed data is used to assign

corresponding levels (classes) in respect to groups with homogenous
characteristics with the aim of discriminating multiple objects from
each other within the image.

Classification will be executed on the base of spectral or spectrally-

defined features, such as density, texture, etc., in the features space.

It can be said that classification divides the feature space into several
classes based on a decision rule.
Classification

 Classification is probably the most informative means

of interpreting remote sensing data
 The output from these methods can be combined with
other computer-based programs.
 The output can itself become input for organizing and
deriving information utilizing what is known as
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Concept of Classification of Remote Sensing
Data
Image Classification

 In classifying features in an image we use the elements

of visual interpretation to identify homogeneous groups
of pixels which represent various features or land cover
classes of interest. In digital images it is possible to
model this process, to some extent, by using two
methods: Unsupervised Classifications and Supervised
Classifications.
Unsupervised Classifications
this is a computerized method without direction from the analyst in
which pixels with similar digital numbers are grouped together into
spectral classes using statistical procedures such as nearest neighbor
and cluster analysis. The resulting image may then be interpreted by
comparing the clusters produced with maps, air photos, and other
materials related to the image site.
Supervised Classification:
Procedure of Classification
Procedure of Classification (CONTD.)
Limitations to Image Classification:

have to be approached with caution because it is a

complex process with many assumptions.

In supervised classifications, training areas may not

have unique spectral characteristics resulting in
incorrect classification.

Unsupervised classifications may require field

checking in order to identify spectral classes if they
cannot be verified by other means (i.e. maps and
air photos).
 Image Type Pixel Value Color Levels

8-bit image 28 = 256 0-255

16-bit image 216 = 65536 0-65535

24-bit image 224 = 16777216 0-16777215

Loss of Visual Information
Image Enhancement

 One of the strengths of image processing is that

it gives us the ability to enhance the view of an
area by manipulating the pixel values, thus
making it easier for visual interpretation.
 There are several techniques which we can use
to enhance an image, such as Contrast
Stretching and Spatial Filtering.
Image Enhancement
 Image Histogram: For every digital image the pixel value represents the
magnitude of an observed characteristic such as brightness level. An image
histogram is a graphical representation of the brightness values that comprise an
image. The brightness values (i.e. 0-255) are displayed along the x-axis of the
graph. The frequency of occurrence of each of these values in the image is shown
on the y-axis.

8-bit image
(0 - 255 brightness levels)

Image Histogram
x-axis = 0 to 255
y-axis = number of pixels
Effects of Image Enhancement
 Image Enhancement
Contrast Stretching: Quite often the useful data in a digital image
populates only a small portion of the available range of digital values
(commonly 8 bits or 256 levels). Contrast enhancement involves
changing the original values so that more of the available range is used,
this then increases the contrast between features and their
backgrounds. There are several types of contrast enhancements which
can be subdivided into Linear and Non-Linear procedures.
 Image Enhancement
 Linear Contrast Stretch: This involves identifying lower and upper bounds from the histogram
(usually the minimum and maximum brightness values in the image) and applying a
transformation to stretch this range to fill the full range.

Linear Stretch Equalized Stretch

 Equalized Contrast Stretch: This stretch assigns more display values (range) to
the frequently occurring portions of the histogram. In this way, the detail in
these areas will be better enhanced relative to those areas of the original
histogram where values occur less frequently.
Linear Stretch
 Linear Stretch Example:
Before Linear Stretch
After Linear Stretch

The linear contrast stretch enhances the contrast in the image with light toned
areas appearing lighter and dark areas appearing darker, making
visual interpretation much easier.
This example illustrates the increase in contrast in an image before (left) and after (right)
a linear contrast stretch.
 Spatial Filtering
 Spatial filters are designed to highlight or suppress features in an
image based on their spatial frequency. The spatial frequency is
related to the textural characteristics of an image. Rapid variations
in brightness levels ('roughness') reflect a high spatial frequency;
'smooth' areas with little variation in brightness level or tone are
characterized by a low spatial frequency. Spatial filters are used to
suppress 'noise' in an image, or to highlight specific image
characteristics.

 Low-pass Filters
 High-pass Filters
 Directional Filters
 etc
Filter is the one which are use to block unwanted things and allow
wanted things.

Like wise in electronic circuits there are filters like band pass, band
stop, low pass and high pass filters.

In a wave there are two type of frequency called high and low
frequency.

Low pass filters are used to filter low frequency and block high
frequency.

Whereas in high pass filter high frequency is filtered and low

frequency is blocked.

Filters are used to obtain only particular frequency and to minimize

noise.
Filtering an Image
 Image filtering is useful for many applications, including smoothing,
sharpening, removing noise, and edge detection. A filter is defined by a
kernel, which is a small array applied to each pixel and its neighbors within
an image. In most applications, the center of the kernel is aligned with the
current pixel, and is a image domains.
 Within the square with an odd number (3, 5, 7, etc.) of elements in each
dimension. The process used to apply filters to an image is known as
convolution, and may be applied in either the spatial or frequency
domain. On spatial domain, the first part of the convolution process
multiplies the elements of the kernel by the matching pixel values when
the kernel is centered over a pixel. The elements of the resulting array
(which is the same size as the kernel) are averaged, and the original pixel
value is replaced with this result. The CONVOL function performs this
convolution process for an entire image.

 Filtering an Image
 Within the frequency domain, convolution can be performed by multiplying the FFT
(Fast Fourier Transform) of the image by the FFT of the kernel, and then transforming
back into the spatial domain. The kernel is padded with zero values to enlarge it to the
same size as the image before the forward FFT is applied. These types of filters are
usually specified within the frequency domain and do not need to be transformed. IDL's
DIST and HANNING functions are examples of filters already transformed into the
frequency domain. See Windowing to Remove Noise for more information on these
types of filters.
 The following examples in this section will focus on some of the basic filters applied
within the spatial domain using the CONVOL function:
 Low Pass Filtering
 High Pass Filtering
 Directional Filtering
 Laplacian Filtering
Low Pass Filter

High Pass Filter

Spatial Filtering

 Low-pass Filters: These are used to emphasize large

homogenous areas of similar tone and reduce the
smaller detail. Low frequency areas are retained in the
image resulting in a smoother appearance to the image.

Linear Stretched Image Low-pass Filter Image

Spatial Filtering

 High-pass Filters: allow high frequency areas to

pass with the resulting image having greater
detail resulting in a sharpened image
Linear Contrast Stretch Hi-pass Filter
 Spatial Filtering
 Directional Filters: are designed to enhance linear features such as
roads, streams, faults, etc. The filters can be designed to enhance
features which are oriented in specific directions, making these useful for
radar imagery and for geological applications. Directional filters are also
known as edge detection filters.

Edge Detection
Lakes & Streams

Edge Detection
Fractures & Shoreline
Image Ratios

 Itis possible to divide the digital numbers of one

image band by those of another image band
to create a third image. Ratio images may be
used to remove the influence of light and
shadow on a ridge due to the sun angle. It is
also possible to calculate certain indices which
can enhance vegetation or geology
 Image
Sensor EM Spectrum Application
Ratio
Landsat TM Bands 3/2 red/green Soils
Landsat TM Bands 4/3 PhotoIR/red Biomass
Landsat TM Bands 7/5 SWIR/NIR Clay Minerals/Rock Alteration

For example:

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI):

a commonly use vegetation index which uses the red and infrared bands
of the EM spectrum.
Image Ratio example: NDVI

NDVI image of Canada.

Green/Yellow/Brown
represent decreasing
magnitude of the
vegetation index.
 Data Visualization
Contrast enhancement or stretch reassigns the DN range that
corresponds to the 256 gray shades
Top row of images are ETM+ data with no enhancement and bottom row
consists of linear contrast stretches of the image DNs to the full 0-255 gray
shades
 Data Visualization
Ability to quickly discern features is improved by using 3-band color
mixes

Image below assigns blue to

band 2, green to band 4, and
red to band 7
Vegetation is green
Surface water is blue
Playa is gray and white
(Playas are dry lakebeds)
 Data Visualization

Changing the color assignment to red, green, and blue does not alter the surface
material only appearance of the image.

All images below show only combinations of bands 2, 4, and 7 of ETM+

 Data Visualization
Other band combinations of the same data set bring out different features
(or in some cases lack there of)
All images below show only combinations of bands 2, 4, and 7 of ETM+
Multispectral display - CIR
• Visualize spectral content with 3- band
color composites

• Example: color infrared (CIR)

– red channel assigned to near IR
sensor band
– green channel assigned to red
sensor band
– blue channel assigned to green
sensor band
• vegetation appears red, soil appears yellow - grey,
water appears blue - black
Atmospheric Correction
THANK YOU!