Evolution

DEVELOPMENT – the act

or process of growing or
causing something to
grow
 Chapter 2
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE LEARNER
Presented by Lota A. Lleve
INTRODUCTION
• The development of a learner undergoes a complicated process.

• The teacher tries to focus attention to the patterns of behavior that make for
individual differences.

• One aspect of development will require the learner to be aware of social

expectations or development tasks.

• The learner copes with such challenges and make every phase of his
development meaningful.
A. Principles of Growth
and Development
 1. Normative sequence
• The physical, motor, mental, and socio-
emotional development which takes place in
certain orders even though speed varies from
one individual to another.
2. Differentiation and
Integration
• Global patterns of behavior are broken into smaller
ones, and smaller ones are put together into larger
ones.
3. Developmental direction
• A. Cephalocaudal development refers
to growth and development that occurs
from the head down. An infant will gain
control over their neck muscles first,
which allows them to hold their head
steady.
• B. Proximodistal development occurs
from the center or core of the body in
an outward direction.
4. Optimal tendency

• The organisms grow as though seeking a target to

be reached by using any available resources.
 5. Development
• A product of maturation and learning.
• Phylogenetic functions – functions which are common to the human race such as
creeping, sitting, standing, or walking; development comes from maturation
• Ontogenetic functions – functions that are specific to the individual such as
writing, driving, dancing, learning in the form of training
6. Early foundations are
critical.
• Attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior established during the
early years determine to a large extent how successfully individuals
will adjust to life as they grow older.
 7. All individuals are different.
• Individual differences are significant.
8. Each phase of development
has characteristic behavior.
• The patterns of behavior are marked by period of equilibrium and
period of disequilibrium.
9. Each phase of development
has hazards.
• Each phase of development has certain developmental hazards
whether physical, psychological, or environmental.
10. Development is aided by
stimulation.
• Directly encouraging the individuals to use an ability which is
in the process of development.
 11. Growth is unique.
• Some functions that result from growth are unique to the species.
 12. There are social expectation for
every stages of development.
• Havighurst labeled the social expectations as developmental tasks.
• Developmental tasks are tasks which arise at or about a certain
period in the life of the individual.
13. The various aspects of
development are integrated.
• Only when considered in relation to other aspects that any phase of
development becomes meaningful.
IMPLICATIONS
• Knowledge of the principles of development is important for 3 reasons:
1. Helps to know what to expect and when to expect it.
2. Gives the information as to when to stimulate and not to stimulate the child.
3. Makes possible to prepare the child ahead of time for the changes that will
take place in his/her body, interests, and behavior.
Principles of maturation
1. Principle of Directionality – Development governed by maturation has
direction
2. Principle of Functional Asymmetry – Humans have the tendency to develop
asymmetrically.
• Motor asymmetry – Handedness; having the preferred side to use in writing, throwing
• Neural asymmetry – If you are left-handed, you are right-brained. One half of the brain is
dominant over the other half.
3. Principle of Self-regulating Fluctuation – development does not proceed at
the same even pace along all fronts simultaneously.
 B. FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
1. heredity
• The direction and pattern by the genes to growth and
development.
• The transmission of genetic characteristics from the parents
to the offspring.
• At maturity, each sex cell
has only 23 single
chromosomes. Through
meiosis, a member is taken
randomly from each original
pair of chromosomes.
• At fertilization, the
chromosomes from each
parent pair up so that the
zygote contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes – half from
the mother, half from the
father.
• 22 pairs of chromosomes
and 1 pair of sex
chromosome
• A child who receives an XX
chromosome from each
parent will be female; if the
child receives a XY
chromosome will be male.
• Although conception usually results in single birth, multiple births can occur.
• Monozygotic – When a single fertilized ovum divides in two, identical twins will be
born; these have the same genetic make-up and therefore are always of the same
sex.
• Dizygotic – When two ova are fertilized, fraternal twins will be born; these have
different genetic make-up and maybe of different sexes.
• The chief patterns of genetic transmission are dominant inheritance, recessive
inheritance, sex-linked inheritance, and multifactorial inheritance.
• Birth defects and diseases can be transmitted through each of these patterns of
inheritance.
• Chromosomal abnormalities can result in birth defects.
Down SYNDROME• The most common of many
chromosomal disorders that is not
sex related.
• The mistake in chromosome
distribution may occur during
development of the ovum, sperm,
or zygote.
• 1 in every 800 babies born alive has
Down syndrome.
• Through genetic counseling,
parents can receive information
about the odds of having children
who will be afflicted with certain
birth defects.
Other birth defects that may
occur:
2. environment
• Includes all conditions inside and outside the organism that in any
way influence its behavior, growth, and development.
• Internal environment – the immediate environment within which the
genes exist and function in the nucleus of a cell.
• External environment – includes physical and social environment.
Physical environment – made up of all the things in the world that affect us
directly and all the things that stimulate our sense organs.
Social environment – includes all the human beings who in any way influence
us
Which makes more difference –
nature or nurture, heredity or
environment?
• It is difficult to disentangle the relative contributions of
heredity and environment to development.
Thank you for
listening!
• The left side of the brain
is responsible for controlling
the right side of the body. It
also performs tasks that have to
do with logic, such as in science
and mathematics.
• The
right hemisphere coordinates
the left side of the body, and
performs tasks that have do
with creativity and the arts.
References for images:
• https://www.google.com/search?biw=1366&bih=608&tbm=
isch&sa=1&ei=ZttcXYnbFcbn-QaLmIfQDA&q=
developmental+direction&oq=developmental+direction&gs_l
=img.3..0i24.13136.20598..20762...0.0..0.281.5435.0j14j13.....
.0....1..gws-wiz-img.......35i39j0j0i67j0i10i24.eTmkRzvhXdI&ve
d=0ahUKEwiJppqWopPkAhXGc94KHQvMAcoQ4dUDCAY&uact=5#imgrc=
vbGINwktjVSw_M:
• https://joycelindemulder.wordpress.com/2011/02/23/the-racial-con
tract/
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/classical-genetics/
sex-linkage-non-nuclear-chromosomal-mutations/a/mitochondrial-a
nd-chloroplast-dna-inheritance
• https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1GCEA_enPH793PH793&
HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING LIFE
SPAN

1. Babyhood and Early Childhood

Learning to take solid foods
Learning to Walk
Learning to talk
Learning to control the elimination of body waste
Learning sex Differences and sexual modesty
Getting ready to read
Letting to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to develop a
conscience
2. Late Adulthood
Building physical skills necessary for ordinary games
Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism
Learning to get to know along with teammates
Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles
Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating.
Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
Developing a conscience a sense of morality and a skill of values
Achieving personal independence
3. Adolescence
• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
• Preparing for an economic career
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour-
developing and ideology.
4. Early adulthood
• Getting started in an occupation
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a marriage partner
• Starting a family
• Rearing a children
• Managing a home
• Taking on civic responsibility
• Finding a congenial social group
5. Middle age
• Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
• Developing adult leisure-time activities
• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
• Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes of middle age
• Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational
career
• Adjusting to aging parents
6. Old age
• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
• Adjusting to death of spouse
• Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s age group
• Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements
• Adapting to social roles in a flexible way
 CELL DIVISION OF THE ZYGOTE

FERTILIZATION
 is the process that which sperm cell and ovum fuse to form a single
new cell is most likely to occur about fourteen days after the beginning of
the woman’s menstrual period. The new cell formed by the two gametes,
or sex cells-the ovum and the sperm is called zygote.
THANK YOU SO MUCH
FOR LISTENING!

PREPARED BY:
Maximino T. Carawana III
 CHAPTER II

STAGES OF THE LIFE SPAN

James Francis Alajas

Edwin Piamonte
Anna Christine Barcelon
Charisse Samonte
THERE ARE 10 STAGES IN THE LIFE SPAN
1.Prenatal Period – conception to birth
2.Infancy – divided in to two periods
Partumatal period – from birth to cutting and tying
of the umbilical cord.
Neconatal period – from the cutting and tying of the
umbilical cord to the end of the second week.
3.Babyhood – end of the second week to end of the
second year
Divisions; Lap baby and Toddler
4.Early childhood – two to six years
5.Late childhood – six to ten to twelve years
6.Puberty or preadolescence – ten to twelve to thirteen or
fourteen.
7.Adolescence – thirteen or fourteen to eighteen years
8.Early adulthood – eighteen to forty years
9.Middle age – forty to sixty years
10.Old age or senescence – sixty years to death
 1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
(from conception to birth)

Ten lunar months of twenty-eight days in length or nine calendar

months.
Average length of prenatal period is 38 weeks or 266 days.
70% of babies vary from 36 to 40 weeks(252 to 280 days)
98% range from 34 to 42 weeks (238 to 294 days)
According to a genetic blueprint directs construction extremely
complex from starts out as only a single cell.
Gestations has three stages; Germinal, Embryonic and Fetal
Germinal Stage - fertilization to two weeks
during this stage, the organism divides
becomes more complex and is implanted in
the wall of the uterus.
36 hours after fertilization, the single-celled
zygote enters a period of rapid cell division.
72 hours after fertilization, it has divided
into 32 cells; a day later it has divided into
70 cells.
Cell division continues until the original
cell has given way to an estimated 800
billions or more cells in a human body.
(Figure 6).
Fertilized ovum is dividing, making its way down the
fallopian tube to the uterus, a journey that takes three or four
days.
Form has changed into a fluid-filled sphere, a blastocyst,
which then floats freely in the uterus for a day or two.
Some cells around the edge of the blastocyst clusters on one
side to form the embryonic disk, a thickened cell mass from
which the baby will develop.
Three layers of mass; upper layer, the ectoderm and outer
layer of skin, hair and teeth.
Embryonic stage – two to 12 weeks
During the embryonic stage, the major body
system (Respiratory, Alimentary, Nervous) and
organs develop.
Development birth defects (Cleft plate,
Incomplete or missing limbs, Blindness,
Deafness. During the critical first trimester (3
month period) of pregnancy.
Most severely defective embryos usually do not
survive beyond this time are aborted
spontaneously (Garn, as cited by Papalia,
1989).
Spontaneous abortion or miscarriage is
expulsion from uterus (prenatal organism)
could not have survived outside the womb.
Fetal stage – 8-12 weeks to birth
During the long period until birth, finishing
touches are put on the various parts and
body changes in form and grows about 20
times in length.
Fetus kicks, turns, flexes its body,
somersaults, squints, swallows, makes fist,
hiccups, and sucks its thumb.
Responds to both sound and vibrations,
indicating that it can hear and feel.
Birth
Normally begins 266 days after conception and
occurs in the three stages:
1. Dilation of the cervix
2. Descent and emergence of the baby, and
3. Expulsion of the placenta and the umbilical cord.

During the first stage, the uterus contracts and the

cervix flattens and dilates to allow the fetus to pass
through.
2 to 16 hours or even longer; it tends to be longer
with the first child. Contractions start, 15 to 20
minute intervals and are generally mild.
Near the end of this first stage, contractions change
becoming more difficult, longer and more frequent.
Period lasting about an hour is called transition and
most difficult part of the labor for many women
(Tucker & Bing, 1975 as cited by Papalia, 1989).
End of stage, cervix is dilated to about 10 centimeters
and contractions occur every minute or so.
The Second stage, birth involves the actual delivery
of the body.
Expulsion stage is quite variable and can last
anywhere from 2 to 60 minutes or more.
Average delivery the baby’s head appears first, an
event referred to as crowning.
The Third stage, birth process involves the delivery
of the placenta (or afterbirth) and fetal membranes.
During this stage, mild contractions continue for
some time. They help decrease the blood flow to the
uterus and reduce the uterus to normal size.
HISTORY OF PREPARED CHILDBIRTH
Before 1920’s births took place for most part, at home
and were attended to by doctors or midwives.
Women’s flocked to hospital for the new modern method
of painless childbirth
Breastfeeding was discouraged and replaced with
modern infant formulas and baby bottle.
No control over the child birth experience everything
was orchestrated by the doctor
Dr. Grantly Dick- Read of England show the beauty in
participatory childbirth
1930’s he wrote ‘birth without fear’.
Maternity center of New York sponsored a grant to study the effect of his
methods and to allow babies to room in
Ferdinand Lamaze French obstetrician studied Russian techniques of
conditioned responses to reduce childbirth pain
Marjorie Karmel American women who had her first child in parish and
Elizabeth Bing began a nationwide movement and organization to promote
the Lamaze method
Organization of Lalechie league give us the movement to promote
breastfeeding
Dr. Robert Bradley 1960 introduce the radical concept of fathers in the
delivery room
Today, we have prepared or natural childbirth
Prepare Childbirth
 teaching and understanding methods to cope with
normal childbirth and understanding the natural
sequence of events in labor and delivery
 this gives the mother choices as to how to have
her baby
 along with her partner allows her to make these
choices based on informations not fear or
ignorance
 LAMAZE METHODS
The most popular alternative birthing method develop by
Fernand Lamaze
Includes instructions in anatomy and physiology to remove
fear of the unknown training in respiration techniques.
 such as rapid breathing and panting to ease pain of each
stage of labor and cognitive restructuring through focusing
the eyes on something or sucking on eyes to help the
woman concentrate on sensations other than contractions
The mother learns to relax her muscles as a conditioned
response to the voice of her coach usually the father or a
friend
The methods also provide social support the coach by
attending classes with the expectant mother participating
in the delivery helping with exercises enhances her sense
of self worth and reduces her fear of loneliness
SEVERAL KEY POINTS IN THIS TECHNIQUE
CONTROLLED DEEP BRIEFING
Life massage of the abdomen
Concentrating on a focal point_this could be a photograph flower or
any object
The coach is very much involved Lamaze allows the woman to have
control over her body and helps with her labor management.
The Lamaze method of delivery can help reduce the pain of labor
and birth.
Lamaze educate the patient about labor and delivery as do other
method and will help her enjoy the experience of bringing her new
baby into the world.
The theory of the Lamaze method that a woman in labor can
condition her responses to contractions through breathing and
imagery to minimize her pain
The Lamaze class consist of twelve hours for instructions.
 THE LABOYER METHOD
Frederick Laboyer author of ‘Birth Without
Violence’ encourages the mother’s to take of
Indian chanting and thus, to transform pregnancy
and childbirth into a spiritual experience.
Laboyer believe that when a woman giving birth
she reborn herself when the pregnant woman has
restless fetus in the womb it signifies that a fetus is
unhappy.
Controversial Method called gentle birth involves
delivering babies in quiet, dimly lit delivery rooms,
without forceps and with only a local anesthetic.
Leboyer maintains gentle practices eliminate much of
the trauma of birth and produce happier people.

THE BRADLEY METHOD

Proponents of the Bradley Method feel that there is
danger in current obstetrical procedures.
Disavow the safety of sonograms, episiotomy and
regional anesthesia
 THE KITZINGER METHOD
Based on Dick-Read and Lamaze, Kitzinger uses mental
imagery to enhance relaxation.
Use of touch, massage, and visualization helps that
woman flow with their contractions rather than ignore or
breathe it away.
Puppet-strings relaxation’ which the partner tells the
patient which limbs the strings are pulling, the others
remaining relaxed.
Mother encouraged to labor in any position that is
comfortable for her
 THE GAMPER METHOD
Self-determination and confidence instilled by
constructors in the ability to work and cooperate with
natural forces of childbirth.
A normal natural rate of deep abdominal breathing is
taught to be able to help the woman work with the
contraction
Classes begin early in pregnancy so that the fear-tension-
pain cycle can be broken and new self-confidence
instilled early.
 THE SIMKINS METHOD
Simkim approach to children works with the strengths of
the couple giving birth.
Encouraged to use whatever means of breathing and
style which helps them as individuals.
Electric mix of techniques is taught.
 THE NOBLE METHOD
Elizabeth Noble’s technique involves relaxation of the
pelvic floor muscles and learning ways to relax them.
‘Gentle pushing’ and ‘breathing the baby’ techniques is
now incorporated in many classes.
Her approach emphasizes women listening to their body.
 THE ODENT METHOD
Michael Odent (French Physicisian), went a step further
than Leboyer.
He put mother and baby both in the water.
Odent allowed his laboring mothers to submerge in a
pool of water, this appears to help some women ease
labor pain.
KINDS OF BIRTH
A. Spontaneous or normal birth
In natural birth, the position of the fetus and its size
in relation to the mother’s reproductive organs allow
it to emerge in abnormal, head first position.
B. Breech birth
Buttocks of the fetus appear first, followed by
the legs, the arms and finally the head
Instruments like forceps are used to aid the
delivery.
C. Transverse presentation
Fetus lies crosswise in the mother’s uterus, so that If
this portion cannot be changed before the birth
process, instruments must be used to aid the delivery.
D. Instrument birth
When the fetus is too large to emerge spontaneously
or when its position to makes normal birth impossible,
instruments must be used to aid the delivery.
E. Cesarean section
If the fetus is too big to pass through the birth
canal without a prolonged and difficult labor, even
when instruments are used, it is delivered
surgically by making a slit in the maternal
abdominal wall.
 2. INFANCY
Infancy period covers approximately the first two weeks
of life
Time needed for newborn to adjust to the new
environment outside the mother’s body.
This period is divided into two:
a. Period of the partunate
from birth up to the cutting and tying of the
umbilical cord.
b. Period of the neonate
from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to
the end of the second week.
There are five important characteristics of infancy:
Shortest of all developmental periods
A time of radical adjustments
A plateau in development
A preview of later development, and
A hazardous period.
First day of life, adjusting new environment even
though it may appear that he has little energy for
anything besides sleeping.
Many newborns seem unwilling to eat during first
few days
Perfectly normal for them to experience a small
weight loss at this time
A slight yellowing of the infant’s skin about the third
day of life is a natural occurrence.
Yellow coloration of the skin usually disappears
when infant begins to eat normally.
Infant is born prematurely, required special attention
available in a hospital.
A premature infant weighing under five and a half
pounds (about 25 kg.) may have to be placed in an
incubator to better control the temp. of his environment.
By nature’s design, breastfeeding is the best possible
way of meeting the infant’s nutritional needs.
The newborn infant make four major adjustments to
postnatal life, adjustment are temp. changes, sucking,
and swallowing, breathing and elimination.
STEPS OF STERILIZING AND PREPARING
BABY BOTTLE
 REFLEXES

A reflex is a simple automatic reaction to a particular

stimulus.
Most important reflexes of the body are present at birth
First reflexes to appear have distinct survival value
Others appear within a few hours or days after birth with
practice the reflexes becomes stronger.
 Different Kinds of Reflexes

1.Sucking
when he gets his mouth around something suckable,
he sucks.
2.Swallowing
reflexes is present at birth through it is not well
coordinated with breathing.
3.Placing
backs of the baby’s feet are drawn against the edge of
a flat surface, the baby withdraws his foot (1 month).
4.Tonie
 neck baby is laid down on his back, he turns head to
one side, assumes ‘fencer’ position extends arms and
legs on preferred side, flexes opposite limbs (2
months)
5.Stepping
hold a very young infant up so that his feet just touch
the ground, he will show some movements, stepping
his feet alternately (2 months)
6.Moro
also called ‘start reflex’ you see it in infant when he
hears a loud noise or gets any kind of physical shock.
He throws both arms outward and arches his back (3
7.Darwinian (Grasping)
 a baby will curl his fingers around your hand or any
object.
8.Babinsky
 if you stroke in infant at the bottom of his foot, he
first splays out his toes and then curls them in (6 to 9
months).
9.Swimming
 when the baby is placed into the water face down,
the baby makes well-coordinated swimming
movements (6 months).
10. Rooting
 an infant touched on the cheek will turn toward the
touch and search for something to suck on (9
months).
 3. BABYHOOD
(end of second week to 2 years)
This period occupies the first two years of life
This is gradual but pronounced decrease in helplessness,
means everyday, week, and month, the individual
becomes more independent, so that, when baby ends
with the second birthday, the individual is a quite
different person than when babyhood began.
During first year of life, the labeled lap baby as he still
very much helpless individual.
Second year of life, he is labeled as a toddler, who has
achieved enough body control to be relatively
independent.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIRST YEAR

Child development
Diagnosis and Assessment
GROSS MOTOR
VISION AND MANIPULATION
HEARING AND VOCALIZATION
SOCIAL
 AGE Social /Emotional Language Cognitive Physical
Development Development Development Development

 Start smile at  Makes  Pays  More Refined

people. cooing and attention to movements
gurgling faces. with arm
2  May show signs noises and legs.
Months
of calming self,
such as bringing  Turns
hands to mouth head
to suck on. toward
sound.
 Tries to look at
parent.
 AGE Social Language Cognitive Physical
/Emotional Development Development Development
Development

Babbling. Expressions  Head is

4 Months
Smile happy or sad steady hold
occasionally , Babbles with emotions, up support.
especially at expression responds to
people. and mimic affections.  Pushes legs
sounds. down with
Likes to play Reaches for feet are on a
with people , things with surface.
may cry if one hand.
the play
stops.
 AGE Social /Emotional Language Cognitive Physical
Development Development Development Development

Hand –eye Possibly

4 Will mimic Cries are coordination able to roll
Months some facial different begins to over
expressions. depending develop. tummy to
on current back.
need.
 Language Cognitive Physical
AGE Social /Emotional Development Development Development
Development

 Start to familiar faces  Responds  Looks around  Roll over in

and knows if someone sound by at nearby both direction.
stranger. making own things.
sound.  May be able to
6  Likes to look at self in  Tries to get sit without
Months mirror.  Respond to things that are support.
name, likes out of reach
taking turns due to
with parent curiosity.
making
sounds.
AGE Social /Emotional Language Cognitive Physical
Development Development Development Development

 May respond to  Make sounds  Passes  Rocks back

6 other’s people’s to show things back and forth,
Months emotions, like to happiness or and forth insight crawl
play with people. discomfort. between backwards
hands. before
moving
forward.
AGE Social /Emotional Language Cognitive Physical
Development Development Development Development

 May be fearful of  Understand  Plays peek-  Stands with

stranger. “no”. a boo. support.
9
Months
 May be clingy with  Sounds may  Picks up  Crawls and
familiar adults. resemble tiny things able to get
words. like cereal into sitting
between position
thumb and without
index support.
finger.
 AGE Social /Emotional Language Cognitive Physical
Development Development Development Development

9  Has a favorite  Copies  Looks for  Pulls to

Months toy. sounds and things that stand.
movements were
of others, hidden.
points at Looks for
things. things that
were
hidden.
 Language Cognitive Physical
AGE Social /Emotional Development Development Development
Development

Nervous Respond Shakes, Uses

around to simple bangs, or furniture
12 strangers. spoen throws to cruise.
Months request,
uses
things
Cries when simple out of May take
parents leave, gestures curiosity, a few
has favorite like finds steps
things and waving or hidden without
people. shaking items holding
head.
easily. on.
AGE Social /Emotional Language Cognitive Physical
Development Development Development Development

 Hands you a book  Changes tone  Able to  May be able

12 for reading, put when making point out to stand
Months out arm or leg to sounds,says a the correct without
help with few basic object when assistance.
dressing. words and you name it.
exclamations
 Starts to
 Tries to use things
repeat spoken correctly,
words. such as a
brush for
hair, and a
cup for
drinking.
Outstanding Characteristics of Babyhood
True foundation age

A time of rapid growth and change and of decreased

dependency.

A time of increased individually and the beginning of

socialization .

A time of sex-role typing and creativity, and

A time that is both appealing and hazardous.

‘Terrible Two’s

A period in which children tend to display resistant or

negative behavior.

Children during the first two years and beyond move

gradually toward self-control and self-regulation (self-
initiated, socially accepted behavior).

This development is largely dependent on cognitive self-

awareness, awareness of social standards, the ability to
apply this knowledge in new situations.
 Outstanding Characteristics of Babyhood
True foundation age
A time of rapid growth and change and of decreased
dependency
A time of increased individually and the beginning of
socialization
A time of sex-role typing and creativity, and
A time that is both appealing and hazardous.
‘Terrible Two’s
 A period in which children tend to display resisitant or
negative behavior.
 Children during the first two years and beyond move
gradually toward self-control and self-regulation (self-
initiated, socially accepted behavior).
 This development is largely dependent on cognitive self-
awareness, awareness of social standards, the ability to
apply this knowledge in new situations.
4. EARLY CHILDHOOD STAGE
(2 to 6 years)

Which extends from two to six years is labeled by

parents as the problem, the troublesome, or the toy age;
By educators as the pre-school age and by psychologists
as the pre-gang, the exploratory and the questioning age.
Physical growth increases during the years from two to
six but more slowly than during infancy and toddler.
Muscular, skeletal, nervous, respiratory, circulatory and
immune system are maturing and all primary teeth are
present.
 Aspects of Intellectual Development

Recognition ability is better than recall ability, both

abilities, increase.
Two main types of speech; Social and Private
Social speech – is intended to be understood by
someone other than the speaker
Private speech – is talking aloud to o oneself with no
intent to communicate with others.
 The Widening Environment
Early childhood is regarded as the teachable moment for
acquiring skills because children enjoy the repetition
essential to learning skills.
Early childhood is characterized by morality by
constraint-a time when children learn, through
punishment and praise, to obey rules automatically.
Also the time when discipline differs, with some
children subjected to authoritarian discipline, while
others are brought up by permissive or democratic
discipline.
Important Psychological Hazards of Early
childhood are:
Unsocial content of speech
Inability to establish the emphatic complex
Failure to lean school adjustments due to lack of guidance
Preference for imaginary companions or pets,
Too much emphasis on amusements and too little on active
play.
Unfavorable emotional weighing of concepts
Inconsistent discipline or discipline that relies too much
on punishment
Failure to be sex-role typed in accordance with the
approved pattern of the social group and,
Deterioration in family relationships, and unfavorable
elf-concepts.
TYPES OF SOCIAL AND NON-SOCIAL PLAY
IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

Unoccupied Behavior
Child apparently is not playing, but occupies himself
with watching anything that happens to be of
momentary interest.

Onlooker Behavior
Child spends most of his time watching other
children play. He is observing, ask questions or gives
suggestions.
Solitary Independent Play
Child plays alone and independently with toys that
are different from those used by the children within
speaking distance and makes no effort to get close to
other children.

Parallel Play
Child plays independently with toys that are like
those of other children, but he plays with the toys as
he sees fit, and does not try to influence or modify the
activity of the children near him.
Associative Play
Child plays with other children. Conversations
concerns, his conversation with the other children one
can tell that his interest is primarily in his associations
not in his activity.

Cooperative or Organized Supplementary Play

Child plays in a group that is organized for the
purpose of making some material product, of striving
to attain some competitive goal, of dramatizing
situations of adult and group life or of playing formal
games.
 TYPES OF COGNITIVE PLAY
According to Piaget and Smilansky, children’s
cognitive development in early childhood allows
them to progress

Functional Play or Sensorimotor Play

Any simple repetitive muscle movement with or without
objects, such as rolling a ball or pulling a pull toy.

Constructive Play
Manipulation of objects to construct or to create
something.
Dramatic or Pretend Play
Imaginary situation to satisfy the child’s personal
wishes and needs.
Pretending to be someone or something like wonder
woman, teacher, engineer and the like.

Games with Rules

Any activity with rules, structure, and a goal like
chess, games of the general, monopoly, snakes, and
ladders and others.
 5. LATE CHILDHOOD
(6 to about 12 or 13)

Extends from the age of six years to the time the

individual becomes sexually mature.
Labeled by parents as the troublesome, sloppy, or
quarrelsome age,; by educators, as the elementary school
age, and by psychologists, as the gang age, the age of
conformity, or the age of creativity.
Late childhood categorized roughly in four major groups
which is self-help skills, school skills, and play skills.
Self-concept
Has three important aspects understanding oneself,
regulating one’s behavior and developing self-esteem.
Self-esteem
Which grows out of comparison with others is
extremely important to success and happiness.
Serism
Is the belief that one sex superior – can damage self-
esteem but it is no longer as strong an influence as in
the past on gender-typing.
Theories
A number of theories give insights into the
development of Self-concept during this stage.
 6. Puberty (10 to 12 to 13 or 14)

 Period of age at which a person reaches maturation

and becomes capable of having a children.
 Derived from Latin word pubertas which means
age of manhood.
Pubescence
Used to denote the whole period during which physical
changes relative to sexual maturation are taking place.

Spermarche
 The first ejaculation of semen-containing ejaculate
for the males.
Menarche
beginning of the menstrual cycle for the female or the
most dramatic sign of sexual maturation for girls.
more than a physical event, concrete symbol of a shift
from girl to woman.
Aristotle wrote in his “Historia Animalium”:
 For the most part males begin to produce sperm
when 14 years have been completed. At the same time,
pubic hair begins to appear. At the same time in females
a swelling of the breasts begins and the menses are first
noticed after the breasts have grown to the height of
two fingers breadth.
 3 Stages of Puberty
1.Prepubescent (Maturing) stage
this stage overlaps the closing year or two of childhood. During
this stage, the secondary sex characteristics begin to appear but
the reproductive organs are not yet fully developed.

Prepubescent
one who is no longer a child but not yet an adolescent.
2. Pubescent (Mature) stage
this stage occurs at the dividing line between childhood and adolescence;
the time when the criteria of full sexual maturity appear: menarche for
girls and the first nocturnal emissions in boys. The secondary sex
characteristics continue to develop and cells are produced in the sex
organs.

3. Postpubescent stage
overlaps the first year or two of adolescence. The secondary sex
characteristics become well developed and the sex organs begin to
function in a mature manner.
Common Concerns About Normalcy During Puberty

A. Boy’s Concern

1. Nocturnal Emissions
2. Secondary Sex Characteristics
3. Lack of Interests in Girls
B. Girl’s Concern

1. Menarche
2. Menstruation
3. Secondary Sex Characteristics
4. Lack of Sex Appeal
C. Concern’s of Boys and Girls

1. Sex Organs
2. Body Disproportions
3. Awkwardness
4. Age of Maturing
5. Masturbation
The most common psychological hazards
during this period are:

Tendency to develop unfavorable concepts

To become underachievers
Unwillingness to accept changed bodies or socially
approved sex roles
Deviant sexual maturing
 3 A’s of Happiness

Acceptance
Affection
Achievement
 7. Adolescence Stage
(13 or 14 to 18 years)
Extends from the time the individual becomes
sexually mature until 18 – the age of legal maturity;
divided into early adolescence, which extends to 17
years, and late adolescence, which extends until legal
maturity.
Characteristically an important period in the life span,
a transitional period; a time of change, a problem age,
a time when an individual searches for identity, a
dreaded age, a time of unrealism and the threshold of
adulthood.
 Important Social Changes in Adolescence

Increased peer group influence

More mature patterns of social behavior
New social groupings
New values in the selection of friends and leaders and in
social acceptance
 Peer pressure influences some adolescents whose
parents offer little supervision.
7 Most Important And Most Universal Interests
Of Todays Adolescents
1. Recreational interests
2. Personal interests
3. Social interests
4. Educational interests
5. Vocational interests
6. Religious interests
7. Interests in status symbols
NUMBER OF EFFECTS OF SEX-ROLE TYPING ON
ADOLESCENTS

Feelings of masculine supremacy

Sex bias
Underachievement in activities regarded as sex-
inappropriate
Fear of success of the girls
Theoretical Perspectives In Personality Development

G. Stanley Hall
proposed that the major physical changes of adolescence
cause major psychological changes. Hall believed that young
people’s effort to adjust to their changing bodies ushered in a
period of storm and stress. He also saw adolescence as a
period of intense, fluctuating emotions from which young
people may emerge morally stronger.
Invariably stormy period of life.
Sigmund Freud
the genital stage. His psychosexual theory views conflicts
as a result of the physical changes in adolescence. This
conflict is preparatory to genital stage; the stage of mature
adult sexuality. According to Freud, the physiological
changes of puberty reawaken the libido; the energy source
that fuels the sex drive.
 8.Early Adulthood(18 to 40 yrs.)

The settling down and reproductive age, a problem age and

one of emotional tension, a time of social isolation, time of
commitments and then a time of dependency, of value
changes, of creativity and of adjustments to a new life
pattern.
3 Common Reasons Why Adjustments To The
Problem Of Adulthood Is Difficult:

Young people have had any preparations for meeting the

types of problems they are expected to cope with as adults.
Trying to learn two or more skills simultaneously.
Young adults do not have the help in meeting and solving
problems that they had when they were younger.
 Reasons For Value Changes In This Period

Wants to be accepted by members of the adult group

Young adults soon discover that most social groups hold
conventional values about beliefs and behavior.
Young adults who become parents tend to change their
values earlier and more radically than those with unmarried
or childless.
 Certain Aids To Mastering The
Developmental Tasks

Physical efficiency
Motor abilities
Mental abilities
Motivation
 9. Middle Age
( from 40 to 60 years)
 Ten Insights About Middle Age

1. You will learn lessons.

2. There are no mistakes, only lessons.
3. A lesson is repeated until learned.
4. If you don’t learn the easy lessons, they get harder.
5. You’ll know you’ve learned a lesson when your actions
changed.
6. “There” is no better than “here”.
7. There is no absolute right or wrong, but there are
consequences.
8. Your life is up to you.
9. Your answers lie inside you.
10. You’ll tend to forget all this, but you can remember
any time you wish.
Nine Irritating Things About Middle Age

1. Nobody asks you what you’re going to do with the rest

of your life.
2. “If I had it to do all over again…” but you don’t.
3. The young patronize you.
4. The old still don’t think you know what you’re doing.
5. They both turn to you for money.
6. You forget what “free time” is like because you never had it.
7. You go on vacation and the best part is getting to sleep late.

8. You do things every day you swore you never did twenty
years ago.
9. You’re not “over the hill”. You’re still climbing… and
climbing… and climbing…
Ten Things We heard As Children That We Need To Hear
Now

1. If you don’t try it, you’ll never know if you’ll like it or

not.
2. No one gets it right the first time.
3. Practice makes perfect.
4. Don’t worry about what other people say, you do what
you know is best for you.
5. If they laugh at you, just ignore them.
6. You have to make up your own mind; don’t wait for
someone else to do it for you.
7. Be your own best friend or you’ll be your own worst
enemy.
8. Don’t be afraid to ask questions.
9. Everybody has to start somewhere.
10. Someday, you’ll look back at all this and laugh!
 Ten Important Characteristics of Middle Age

a. Dreaded period
b. Time of transition
c. Time of stress
d. Dangerous age
e. Awkward age
f. Time of achievement
g. Time of evaluation
h. Evaluation by a double standard
I. Time of the empty nest
 Four Important Changes In Recreational Interests

1. Waning of interest in strenuous recreations

2. Shifting from recreational activities involving large
groups those involving only several people
3. Preferring adult to family-oriented recreational activities
4. Narrowing down of recreational interests.
10. Old Age
(60 and above)

The period of life from the sixties till death is the period of old
age. However, with increasing life expectancy and longer work
period there is a delayed onset of the actual feeling of old age.
Besides retirement from active work life, the old people have to
cope with many other challenges such as their own declining
physical fitness, ill health, death of near ones in the family
including possible loss of spouse and loneliness.
 Age Divisions in the Bible

The period of youth lasts up to about 40 years of age.

Moses began to sense his responsibility to Israel and to the
Lord when he was about 40 (Acts 7:23). He spent forty
more years in training though, before he became the leader
of the people of Israel. It was during the years from 80 to
120 that he did his great work.
 In Acts 4:22, a man is healed and the Sanhedrin wanted
to ridicule his testimony. However, “the man was above
forty years old on whom this miracle of healing was
shown, "indicating that he was mature enough to know
what had happened.
 In 1 Tim. 4:12, Paul writes, “Let no man despise thy
youth” Timothy was in his 30’s at that time.

The period of middle age last from about 40 to 60 years of

age. In 1 Tim. 5:9, a 60-year-old widow’s retirement was
into a full time ministry of prayer supported by the church.
Many believers hit their top pace in the middle years. The
high priest’s work load was heaviest between 30 and 50.
 Problems of Old Age

Old age may bring in a lack of mental sharpness. This can

occur because of physical debility.
There can be a disorientation to life from the standpoint of
success standards. There is a great danger of
disillusionment.
There is often a lack of security in old age, especially if
the old people cannot take care of themselves financially.
Old age may bring an inability to concentrate,
forgetfulness, inability to converse, to hear, to see.
There is sometimes a lack of motive to live, too much
idle time, and too much for complaining. There may be a
desire to travel but no means to do so.
Old age brings future shock. Old age find itself out of
phase with the younger generations of children and
grandchildren.
There is a tendency to think getting old means that a
person has some wisdom.
 Other Adjustments in Old Age
Physical changes include changes in appearance, changes
in the different internal physical systems, changes in
physiological functioning and sensory sexual changes.
The most common changes in motor abilities include
changes in strength and speed, an increase in time needed
to learn new skills, and a tendency to become awkward
and clumsy.
Changes in interests are due to many conditions, the most
common of which are deterioration in health and economic
status, changes in place of residence and in marital status,
and changes in values.
Personal interests of the elderly include self, appearance,
clothes, and money.
Changes in recreational activities in old age are due more
to changes in health, economic and marital status, and
living conditions, than they are to changes in recreational
interests.
Social disengagement, characteristic of old age may be
voluntary or involuntary.
Interest in religion is often concentrated on concern with
death.
Potential hazards to good personal and social
adjustments are due partly to the physical and mental
decline characteristic of old age.
Among the common physical hazards are diseases,
physical handicaps, malnutrition, dental disorders,
accidents, and sexual deprivation.
Psychological hazards include acceptance of cultural
stereotypes of the elderly, feelings of inferiority and
inadequacy resulting from physical changes, changes in
life patterns, a tendency to “slip” mentally, feelings of
guilt about idleness, especially on the part of men after
retirement, and reduced income that necessitates changes
in living patterns.
 CHAPTER II
E. Exceptional Children
Classification of
Hearing Impaired Children
According
to: A Age at Onset of Deafness

B Language Development

C Place of Impairment

D Degree of Hearing Loss

1. According to age at 2. According to language
onset of deafness development

CONGENITALLY DEAF PRELINGUALLY DEAF

01 01 • born deaf or lost hearing
• born deaf
before speech and
language were developed
ADVENTITIOUSLY DEAF POSTLINGUALLY DEAF
02 • born with normal hearing 02 • lost their hearing after
and became deaf through the development of
accident or illness spontaneous
 3. According to place of impairment

 abnormality of the inner

ear or the auditory nerve c
a or both

CONDUCTIVE SENSORY MIXED

HEARING LOSS NEUTRAL HEARING
HEARING LOSS
LOSS combination of the conductive
 interference in the transmission
and sensory neural hearing
of sound to and through the b loss; sometimes called a
sense organ; usually in the “flat loss” as depicted in
outer or middle ear the audiogram
4. According to degree of hearing loss
CLASSIFICATION DEGREE OF LOSS
Slight 27-40 dB
Mild 41-55 dB
Moderate 56-70 dB
Severe 71-90 dB
Profound 91 dB or more
Interrelationships of
the degree of
impairment,
its effects and the
necessary education
considerations
 Average of the Speech Effects of Hearing Loss on
Educational
Frequencies in the Understanding of
Considerations
Better Ear Language and Speech
Slight 27 to 40 dB • difficulty hearing faint or  should be reported to the
distant speech school principal

• difficulty with the  May benefit from a hearing

language arts subjects aid as loss approaches 40
dB (SIO)
 need attention in
vocabulary development
 needs favorable seating
and lighting
 need speech therapy
 Average of the Effects of Hearing Loss on the
Speech Frequencies in Understanding of
Better Ear Language and Speech
Mild (41 to 55 dB) • Understands conversational
speech at a distance of 3-5
feet (face to face)
• miss as much as 50% of class
discussions if voices are faint
or not in line of vision
• exhibit limited vocabulary and
speech anomalies
Educational
Considerations
 referred to special education
for educational follow-up
 Individual hearing aid by
evaluation and training in
its use
 Favorable seating and possible
special class place, especially
for primary children
 Attention to vocabulary and
reading
 Speech reading instruction
 Speech conversation and
correction, if indicated
 Average of the Effects of Hearing Loss on the
Educational
Speech Frequencies in Understanding of
Considerations
Better Ear Language and Speech
Moderate (56 to 70 dB) • Conversation must be loud to referred to special education for
be understood education follow-up

• increased difficulty in group Special help in language skills:

discussions vocabulary development, usage,
reading, writing, grammar
• very limited vocabulary Individual hearing aid by
evaluation and auditory training

Speech reading instructions

Speech conversation and

correction
Attention to auditory and visual
situation at all times
 Average of the Effects of Hearing Loss on
Educational
Speech Frequencies in the Understanding of
Considerations
Better Ear Language and Speech
Severe (71 to 90 dB) • hear loud voices about 1  referred to special education class for
foot from the ear education follow-up
• identify environmental  Full time special program for deaf
sounds children, with emphasis on concept
development and speech
• discriminate vowels but not
all consonants

• Speech and language are  Program needs specialized supervision

defective and likely and comprehensive supporting services
deteriorate
 Individual hearing aid by evaluation
 Auditory training with group and individual
aids
 Part-time in regular classes only as
profitable
 Average of the Effects of Hearing Loss on
Speech Frequencies in the Understanding of
Better Ear Language and Speech
Profound (91 dB or more) • hear some loud sounds but
is aware of vibrations more
than tonal pattern
• Relies on vision rather than
hearing as primary avenue
for communication
Educational
Considerations
 referred to special education for
educational follow-up
 Full-time in special program for deaf
children, with emphasis on all language
skills concept development, speech
reading, and speech
 Program needs specialized supervision
and comprehensive support services
 Continuous appraisal of needs in regard
to oral and manual communications.
 Auditory training with group and individual
aids
 Part-time in regular classes only for
carefully selected children
Learning Disabilities
 Learning Disabilities
 encompass problems in
which children exhibit
disorders in
understanding or using
spoken and/or
written language.
 problems includes listening,
reading, writing,
spelling, or
Learning Disabilities
 Also referred to as
perceptual handicaps,
developmental aphasia,
specific developmental
disorder, and sensory
integration/sensory
motor dysfunction
 Sensory Integration Dysfunction
 ability to process and utilize information received by one’s
senses from the environment
 senses include auditory, tactile, vestibulary (balance center in
the inner ear), proprioceptive (muscles, joints, and tendons)
and visual
 Sensory integration provides a foundation on which to
develop perceptual motor skills which in turn, provide a basis
for academic learning, emotional/social adjustments
and the ability to cope with the activities and
demands of daily life.
 Three conditions before a child could be qualify for
educational services.

1. Normal Intelligence
 able to perform the above normal range on non-verbal measures which
include language concepts

2. Academic achievement deficit

 manifest an academic achievement deficit in at least one subject: oral
expression, listening, comprehension, mathematical calculation &
spelling

3. The absence of other handicapping condition (exclusion criteria)

 no evidence of visual or hearing impairment, mental retardation, severe
cultural neglect or a severe emotional disturbance.
 Highlights

Learning disability is considered as a hidden disability characterized

by poor academic performance, delayed physical development
accompanied by academic, social and psychological problems.
Different types of learning disabilities are:

DYSARTHRIA DYSGRAPHIA MOTOR VISUAL

APHASIA AGNOSIA
stuttering writing speaking sight

AUDITORY OLFACTORY
DYSCALCULIA DYSLEXIA
AGNOSIA AGNOSIA

hearing smelling math reading

 There are three general causes of
learning disability:

01 Problematic 02 Biochemical 03 Environmental

pregnancies imbalance factors
before, during, acquired form such as poor
and after delivery artificial quality of
causing minimal food colorings instruction,
brain injury or and flavorings emotional
brain dysfunction disturbance and
lack of
motivation
Nature and Characteristics of Learning Disability
A. Physical and behavioral characteristics What else could it be?
Motor skills are generally delayed.
The child may have:
1. General awkwardness (stumbles easily)  Delayed maturation
2. Fear of heights  Retardation
(slides, swings, climbing apparatus)
3. Delayed self-help skills  Attention deficit disorders
(dressing, eating) (Hyper/Hypo Active)
4. An unestablished hand preference
(switches crayon from one hand to the other)
5. An awkward crayon, pencil, and scissors grasp
A. Physical and behavioral characteristics What else could it be?
Motor skills are generally delayed.
6. Hands that shake or tense when using crayons  Prematurity
or pencils
7. Poor coordination in coloring, cutting, pasting  Has not been exposed to
or building structured learning
or social situations
8. Developmentally immature drawings  Lack of opportunities
for acquiring basic skills
9. An inability to play constructively due to  Under-stimulating home
clumsiness environment
B. Pre-academic/Academic skills tend to What else could it be?
be below expected developmental level.
The child may have:
1. Have uneven patterns of abilities in different  Cultural/English as a
areas of development second language
2. Seem bright even though performance is  Physical health
very inconsistent problems
3. Have noticeable problem with processing visual
and auditory information despite normal vision
and hearing
4. Have immature spoken language
5. Not ask questions  Behavioral/ social/
emotional problems
B. Pre-academic/Academic skills tend to What else could it be?
be below expected developmental level.
6. Respond to questions with inappropriate  Speech and language
answers problems
7. Have difficulty in recalling a desired word when  Family stress factors,
speaking or may use associated words such such as death, divorce,
as “dig” for “shovel” parents, unemployment
8. Speak too softly or too loudly
9. Have language that is difficult to understand
such as having sequencing & grammar problems
10. Ignore, confuse or not follow simple directions
11. Confuse time and space concepts
12. Have problems identifying colors, shapes
numbers and letters
B. Pre-academic/Academic skills tend to What else could it be?
be below expected developmental level
13. Have difficulty counting in sequence and
acquiring number concepts
14. Have problems with instructional words such
as “more, less, same, before, often, under,” etc.
15. Not enjoy looking at books or listening to stories
16. Be unable to locate a named object if the
picture is complex
17. Be unable to remember what he has just read
18. Have poor academic achievement in spite  Speech and language
of average intelligence problems; behavioral,
social/ emotional
problems
B. Pre-academic/Academic skills tend to What else could it be?
be below expected developmental level
19. Read at a significantly lower level than  Retardation
his other peers  Attention deficit disorder
20. Show a discrepancy between recognition
skills and comprehension skills
21. Be unable to explain ideas or organize  Sensory integration
thoughts when telling a story dysfunction
22. Be very slow in completing written work  Motor problems
23. Have poor printing skills  Visual impairment
24. Have trouble with spelling  Developmental delay
25. Have trouble with mathematics
C. Learning, social, and emotional behaviors What else could it be?
are often immature
The child may:
1. Not have developed strategies that help  Behavioral, social/
one learn emotional problems
2. Be impulsive, make choices quickly  Attention deficit disorder
without reflection
3. Refuse to try, give up easily, expect to fail  Hyperactivity
4. Lack motivation in learning activities, appear
bored
5. Be unable to transfer or have limited transfer
of learning situations
6. Not be an independent learner, often seek
adult or peer direction
7. Have a short attention span
C. Learning, social, and emotional behaviors What else could it be?
are often immature
8. De distractible; appear to daydream  Hearing impairment
9. Forget daily routines but may remember
irrelevant experiences, such as TV commercials
10. Be overactive, activity seems purposeless
11. Have frequent changes of mood  Attention deficit disorder
(overreacts when touched, bumped or held)
12. Find change of routine difficult-keep  Perseveration
doing previous activity
13. Often be an unhappy child
14. Have low self-esteem  Abuse/neglect
15. Be hypoactive, appear withdrawn or shy,
play alone, seldom talk
C. Learning, social, and emotional behaviors What else could it be?
are often immature
16. Engage in disruptive behavior
(tantrums, fighting, screaming)
17. Frequently seek adult attention and approval
18. Frequently be in conflict with other children,
have few friends
19. Prefer to play with younger children
20. Have poor eye contact  Autism
21. Have toileting problems  Kidney/ bladder disorder
22. Require immediate gratification  Behavioral, social/
emotional problems
 Brain Parts and their functions

 many people believe that all learning

disabled children have some form of
brain dysfunction
 the existence of brain damage could be
shown by test results from an
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
 EEG measures and makes a
graph of the child’s brain waves
Cortical Function of the Brain
 Exterior View of the Brain

Parietal lobe
monitors and interprets a number of
sensations
Frontal lobe or cerebrum
controls all voluntary movements of the
feet, legs and abdomen
Nearer the ear-controls the neck, Occipital lobe
throat and face muscles including voice monitors visual sensations

Temporal lobe
receives and interprets all
Prefrontal lobe or cerebellum
auditory and olfactory
center of thought association and
sensation
idea generation.
 refer to a significant

Learning Disabilities Academic inhibition of a blockage in

Classification of
learning to read, to write,
Learning to spell or to compute
Disabilities arithmetically

Developmental
refer to deviations in the Learning
development of a number of Disabilities
psychological and linguistic
functions that normally
unfold as the child grows up
Learning Development Disabilities
01 02 03 04

Language Thinking Memory Attention

disorder disabilities deficits disorder

Language disorder Thinking disabilities Memory deficits Attention disorder

child doesn’t talk like
older siblings at a similar
age or doesn’t respond
adequately to directions or
verbal statements
difficulties in the inability to remember result of delayed
cognitive operations or recall what has been development in
of concept formation, heard or seen or the capacity to
problem-solving and experienced either employ and
association of idea visual or auditory sustain selective
attention
Brain Damage

 some believe that all learning disabled

children suffer from some form of brain injury.
 children are often referred to as minimally
brain damage or as minimally dysfunctional
if there is no evidence of brain damage
 Biochemical Imbalance
 Some researchers claim that biochemical disturbances within a
child’s body are the cause of learning disabilities.
 Feingold (cited by Friend, 1996) claims that artificial
colorings and flavorings in many of the foods children eat
can cause learning disabilities and hyperactivity.
 Colt hypothesized that learning disabilities can be caused
by the inability of a child’s bloodstream to synthesize a
normal amount of vitamins.
Three types of A emotional disturbance
Environmental
Influences related B lack of motivation
to Children’s
Learning Problems C poor instruction

One variable that is very likely to be a

major contributor to children’s learning
problem is the quality of instruction
they receive.
 GENETICS

Reading, writing, and language disabilities tend to “run

in the family”
Other factors contributing to learning disabilities
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS PSYCHOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS FACTORS CONDITIONS
 visual & hearing defects
 confused laterality and  in the home, community
 attention disorder, poor and school that may
special orientation,
auditory or visual perception adversely affect the child’s
 poor body image,
and discrimination, normal development
 Hyperkinesis
 language delay or disorder psychologically &
 under-nourishment
 inadequate thinking abilities, academically:
 other physical problems
 defective short-term auditory  traumatic experience
that can inhibit the child’s
 visual memory  family pressures
ability to learn
 instructional inadequacies
 lack of school experience
Thank you
MARIA FE NOVERE E. AMOR
DENNIS AMPARO
Exceptional Children
Growth Development
Impairment
refers to diseased or defective tissue, such as a visual loss due to an
illness.
Disability
refers to a reduction of function, or the absence of particular body a
part or organ, such as the loss of a limb. The term disorder and
dysfunction are frequently used as synonyms for disability.
Handicap
• refers to the problems that an impaired or disabled person might have
met in interacting with the environment. A handicap may be viewed
as a disadvantage resulting from a disability or an impairment that
limits or prevents fulfillment of a role.
Types of Exceptionalities
• Physical Disabilities
are those with impairments that are temporary or permanent which
could be paralysis, stiffness or lack of motor coordination of bones,
muscles or joints so that they need special equipment and/ or help in
moving about.
Crippling disabilities come in many
forms:
• 1. Impairment of the bone and muscle systems making mobility and
manual dexterity difficult and/ or impossible as in the case of the
amputees and those with severe fractures;

• 2. Impairment of the nerve and muscle systems making mobility

awkward and uncoordinated as in cerebral palsy.

• 3. Deformities and/ or absence of body organs and systems necessary

for mobility like in the case of the club-foot and paraplegics.
• It is evident that orthopedic handicaps, dysfunction or the neuro-
muscular system and congenital deformities ate contributory factors
in the making of the group of exceptional children called the crippled.
Causes of the Handicap
• 1. Prenatal factors. These include factors before and after conception
virtually lasting up to the first trimester and/or the third trimester of
life.
• Also, includes the following:
Genetic or chromosomal-aberrations due to incompatibility of the Rh-
factors.
Prematurity or untimely birth of the fetus before the ninth month of
pregnancy.
Infection
--This refers to the effects of bacteria or virus on the fetus in the womb
of the mother; the germs usually come from highly communicable
diseases like rubella and venereal diseases.
Malnutrition.
This refers to the insufficient intake of food nutrients necessary to
sustain the growth and development of the fetus and its mother.
Irradiation. This refers to the exposure of the pregnant mother to
radioactive elements like x-ray. Exposure of the mother also affects the
fetus.

Metabolic disturbances. These refer to the inability of the mother or

the fetus to make use of food taken into the body.

Drug Abuse. The entry of medicines into the body in large quantities
thus affecting the fetus.
2. Perinatal factors.
These are factors which may cause crippling conditions during the
period of birth.

Birth injuries. These are injuries suffered by the newborn baby.

Difficult labor. This refers to hard and prolonged labor before the actual
birth.

Hemorrhage. This refers to profuse bleeding of the mother during birth.

3. Postnatal factors
• These are factors which are likely to cause crippling conditions after birth.

• *Infections. Effects of such illness as diphtheria, typoid, meningitis,

encephalomyelitis and rickets in infants.

• Tumor and abscess(collection of puss) in the brain. These may setroy the
brain cells connected with movement thus impairing mobility.

• Fractures and dislocations. These refer to the destruction of mobility

organs through falls and other accidents. The bones may be broken or
dislocated.
Tuberculosis of the bones. The germs of tuberculosis are likely to attack
the bones of the very young causing crippling conditions.

Cerebrovascular injuries. These are injuries in the head region resulting

in brain damage.
Post-seizure or post-surgical complications. This refers to convulsions
after the delivery of the baby which are likely to cause crippling
conditions.

Arthritis, rheumatism. These are diseases affecting the spinal column

and the muscles of locomotion at the back.
Characteristics of the Physically
Handicapped
• 1. Physical. This refers to traits and behaviors indicative of crippling
conditions such as limping, abnormal gait or way of walking, incorrect
posture, hunchback, deformities of extremities, uncontrolled
movement of extremities, absence of limb, and hypoactive.

• 2. Intellectual learning. This refers to such behavior characteristics

related to mental development, although some crippled may be
mentally gifted, delayed or labored speech; low academic
achievements, and difficulty in certain subjects like Physical
Education.
• 3. Social/Emotional.
The social and behavior characteristics of the crippled are feelings of
inadequacy, dependency, and low self-esteem, increased desire for
attention, affection, and protection, generally immature, short
attention span, easily fatigued, lacks persistence, and introverted.
Classification of Disability Classification refers to
the various groupings of crippled impairments.
• 1. Orthopedic impairments refer to bone and muscular defects such
as:
poliomyelitis- known as infantile paralysis cause by virus

osteomyelitis-tuberculosis of the bones and spine

bone fracture- breaks in the continuity of bone.

muscular dystrophy- deterioration of the muscles of the body which is
usually fatal
2. Neuro-muscular impairments refer to the defects of the nerve and
muscle systems of the body.

Cerebral palsy is characterized by non-progressive alteration of

movement or motor functioning of body parts amenable to voluntary
control.
Spasticity refers to strong hyperactive reflexes and exaggeration of the
stretch reflex in the affected parts.

Athetosis is a condition characterized by slow, worm-like involuntary,

uncontrollable, and purposeless movements.

Rigidity is characterized by the marked resistance of the muscles to

passive motion.

Ataxia is a disturbance of balance and equilibrium resulting in a mgait

like that of a drunken person.
 Tremor is the involuntary trembling of the body or limbs.
Mixed type is characterized by the presence of traits mentioned in the
preceding categories.
Erb's Palsy also known as birth palsy which results in the paralysis of
the muscles of the shoulder, arm and hand.

Congenitally crippled refers to a grouping of crippled children who are

usually suffering from crippling conditions at birth.
• Clubfoot- the child is born with one or both feet deformed, usually
with the feet and toes turned inward, outward or upward often
accompanied by webbed toes.
• Clubhand-the same as the clubfoot, but this time, the hands and
fingers are affected.

• -Syndicalism- characterized by webbed fingers or toes.

2. Mental Retardation
• Causes
• 1. Cultural familial. This is due to complex interaction between
environment and hereditary factors.

2. Organic causes. These result from chromosomal defects like an extra

chromosome which may produce Mongolism or Down syndrome,
genetic defects which result in metabolic disturbances, incompatibility
of blood chemistry between parents or parent and child, and glandular
disorders which result in cretinism.
Characteristics
1. Physical-usually smaller in stature than the so-called normal and
weighs slightly less, has higher incidence of physical defects, shows
poor motor coordination.

2. Intellectually Learning-poor memory particularly short-term memory,

limited ability to understand cause and effect, faulty concept formation,
inaccurate perception, impoverished language, and difficulty in making
generalizations.
3. Social/emotional-manifests perseveration, behaviors is on either extreme
such as overly aggressive or withdrawn, hyperkinetic, and sociable and
exhibits adaptive behavior to the demands of the environment but has
difficulty in delaying gratification.

Development of the Mentally Retarded

The MR develop at a slower rate than those children with average ability as
far as academic achievement is concerned. They can become self-
supporting, independent, and socially adjusted adults with proper guidance.
The mentally retarded children as classified below can be
developed to a certain degree that their disability may allow.

• 1. Mildly Retarded-those who, because of subnormal mental

development, are unable to profit sufficiently from the program of the
regular elementary school, but who are considered to have
potentialities for development in three areas:
• a. educability in academic subjects of the school at a minimum level
• b. educability in social adjustment to a point where he can get along
independently in the community, and
• c. minimal occupational adequacies to such a degree that he can later
support himself partially or totally at the adult level
2. Moderately Retarded- those whoa re not educable in the field of academic achievement, ultimate social adjustment
independently in the community or independent occupational adjustment at the adult level but have potentialities for learning:
• a. self-help skills
• b. social adjustment in the family and in the neighborhood, and
• economic usefulness in the home, in a residential school, or in a
sheltered workshop.
3. Severely Retarded- those who can talk and learn to communicate
and can be trained in elemental health habits and may contribute
partially to self-maintenance under complete supervision; and can
develop self-protection skills to a minimal useful level in controlled
environment.

4. Profoundly Retarded- those who, because of very severe mental

retardation are unable to be trained in total self-care, socialization, or
economic usefulness and who need continued help in taking care of
their personal needs throughout life.

3. Behavioral Disabilities
Emotional disturbance/ behavior disorders are also referred to as
• Schizophrenia refers to a psychotic disorder characterized by distorted
thinking, abnormal perceptions and bizarre behavior and emotions.

• Autism is a psychotic condition characterized by bizzare behavior,

extreme social isolation, and delayed development, which first
appears at the age of three.
CHARACTERISTICS
of BEHAVIORAL
DISABILITIES
Behavioral disabilities exist on two
broad dimensions.
-Walker and Fabre

1. The “externalizing dimension”

2. The “internalizing dimension”
THE EXTERNALIZING DIMENSION

• characterized by acting-out, disruptive,

non-compliant, or aggressive behavior
patterns.
THE INTERNALIZING DIMENSION

• socially withdrawn and depressed

behavior patterns.
 CHARACTERISTICS STUDENT’S CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR
A. Conduct Disorder
Behaviors

1. Aggression Engages in frequent fights

Bullies, threatens, and uses
inappropriate language.
2. Noncompliance Refuses to do work
States “make me” when given a
request
Ignores requests
3. Disruptive behaviors Talks out inappropriately, laughs,
shouts, sings, whistles
Steals
4. Inattention Does not attend to task at hand
Does not respond to teacher’s directions
Is frequently out of seat

5. Hyperactivity Appears to be in “perpetual motion”, is

out of seat, fidgets, guesses at answers.

6. Attention-seeking Shouts, shows off, runs away, tattles,

whines
B. Personality Disorders (Anxiety-Withdrawal)

1. Anxiety Is shy, withdrawn, fidgety, asks frequently

about performance
Has physical symptoms (nausea,
perspiration) in stressful situations

2. Inferiority Fails to attempt new activities

3. Withdrawal Isolates self, is preoccupied, daydreams,
fails to show interest
C. Inadequacy-Immaturity
1. Passive Acts irresponsibly
Is “easily led”
Has difficulty making decisions

2. Social immaturity Exhibits “baby” behaviors, cries in

stressful situations, chooses to play
with younger students

D. Socialized Aggression
(Subcultural Delinquency)

1. Socialized Aggression Engages in gang behavior

Engages in cooperative stealing,
truancy
SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS

Visual handicaps
1) visual impairment
2) blindness
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

- a visual problem requiring specific

modification or adjustments in the student’s
educational programs.
BLINDNESS

- exists when vision is measured to be

20/200 or less in the better eye with
correction or when the visual field is
significantly less than that considered to be
normal.
VISUAL ACUITY PROBLEMS

1) reduced visual acuity – poor

sight
2) amblyopia – lazy eye
3) hyperopia – farsightedness
4) myopia – nearsightedness
5) astigmatism
 OTHER VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS

1. Albinism – rapid, involuntary side

movement of the eyeball or
nystagmus.

2. Cataracts – the lens of the eye changes

from a clear, transparent structure to a
cloudy or opaque one.
3. Macular degeneration – the macula or central
part of the retina is affected; can use the remaining
peripheral vision to see objects and colors but
not to read.

4. Diabetic retinopathy – the leading cause of new

cases of blindness. Vision is blurred or distorted.
5. Glaucoma – characterized by increased
pressure within the eye. Vision loss is
gradual, beginning with the peripheral
vision.
6. Retinitis pigmentosa – an inherited condition
which begins with the loss of night vision
and leads to gradually decreasing peripheral
vision.
7. Retinopathy (deterioration of the retina)
of prematurity
- due to the high levels of oxygen
required for the survival of some very
small premature infants who would not
have previously survived.
HEARING IMPAIRMENTS
• Hearing Impairment – is a generic term
indicating a hearing disability that may range
in severity from mild to profound.
• Deaf individuals – those whose hearing
disability precludes successful processing of
linguistic information through hearing with
or without a hearing aid.
• Prelingual deafness – is deafness present at
birth or occurring before the
student develop speech or
language.
• Postlingual deafness – is deafness which
occurs after the child has developed
speech or language.
• Sensory neural deafness – results from physical
impairment of the inner ear, the
peripheral hearing nerve, or other parts of
the auditory system leading to the
cortex of the brain.
“The problems of deafness are deeper and more
complex. It is a much more worse misfortune for it
means the loss of the most vital stimulus, the sound of
the voice that brings language, sets thoughts astir, and
keeps us in the company of man.”
- Helen Keller
CAUSES of DEAFNESS
1. Prenatal causes
- toxic conditions
- viral diseases – mumps, influenza, German
measles (rubella)
- congenital malformation (lack/closure of the
external canal or the ear, ossification of the
three little bones in the ear and the oval
window.
2. Perinatal causes
- traumatic experience during delivery
- anoxia or lack of oxygen due to
prolonged labor
- heavy sedation
- blockage of the infant’s respiratory
passage
3. Postnatal causes
* diseases/ailments/conditions
- meningitis
- external otitis (inflammation of the outer ear)
- otitis media (often characterized by
running/discharging ears or the infection of the
middle ear
- impacted or hardened earwax (cerumen) which may
lead to infection
* accidents/trauma
- falls
- head bumps
- over exposure to high frequency sounds, loud explosions
- puncturing of eardrum
- difference in pressure between air outside and that one inside
the middle air due to changes in altitude
- undrained water in the ear due to frequent swimming
4) Other causes
- heredity
- prematurity
- malnutrition
- Rh factor – blood incompatibility of
parents
- overdosage of medicine