Networking and Data

Communication
MBA Semester II CAM
Faculty of Management Studies
MSU
 Networks
• Radio, TV, Railway, Highways, Mobile Telephone
• Computer Networks – WWW, Airlines, Railways, Financial transactions,
Stock/Share-BSE, NSE, nifty, DOW
• An interaction of widely dispersed computers via a public
telecommunication system is known as a computer network – the
communications media, devices and software needed to connect 2 or
more computer systems and/or devices; used to share hardware,
programs and databases across the organization; fosters teamwork,
innovative ideas and new business strategies
• Data Communication – A specialized subset of telecommunications that
refers to the electronic collection, processing and distribution of data –
typically between computer system hardware devices. Efficient data
communication must be: accurate, timely and cost effective. Data
communication allows users to transmit and receive data and information.
This information is used to solve problems and to make informed choices.
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can
be local or remote.
Telecommunication –telephony, telegraphy and television, means
communication at a distance (tele is Greek for ‘far’)
Data refers to facts, concepts and instructions presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Data communication is the exchange of data(in the form of 0s and 1s)
between two devices via some form of transmission medium (such
as a wire cable). DC is considered local if the communicating devices
are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area,
and is considered remote if the devices are farther apart.
For DC to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware and
software. The effectiveness of a DC system depends on 3
fundamental characteristics: Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness
 Components
• Message
• Sender
• Receiver
• Medium
• Protocol
Networks A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected
by media links. A node can be a computer, printer or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. The links connecting the devices are called communication
channels.
Networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among
multiple computers. Instead of a single large machine being responsible
for all aspects of a process, each separate computer (usually a PC or
workstation) handles a subset.
Network Topology
 Network topology vs. Network fabric

A network topology is the physical or logical structure of a network. The term network
fabric describes the way each topology creates a particular type of criss-cross pattern of
connections. Common topologies and their fabrics include:

Full mesh networks - all nodes are connected to each other and can exchange data.

Partial mesh networks - some nodes are connected to each other in a full mesh scheme, but
others are only connected to one or two other nodes in the network.

Point to point networks - network connectivity is limited to two endpoints.

Star network - all network nodes are connected to a common central computer.

Tree network - two or more star networks are connected together.

Bus - network devices are attached directly to a transmission line. All signals pass through all
devices, but each device has a unique identity and recognizes signals intended for it.
 Data Transmission Modes
Item Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
Direction of Communication in Both ways but Communication in
transmission of one direction only transmission of both directions
message communication is simultaneously
only in one
direction at a time
Confirmation of the Not possible Possible but slow Possible
communicated
message
Number of wires Two Two Four
required
Cost of Cheapest Average Costliest
transmission
Example of user TV and Radio Transmission of Telephonic
transmission and data from hard disk communications
broadcasting to memory in a PC
Efficiency Low Medium High
 Network Goals
• Resource sharing and the goal is to make all programs, data and
equipment available to anyone on the network without regard to
the physical location of the resource and the user. Load sharing
(ending tyranny of geography) is another aspect of resource
sharing.
• High Reliability By having alternative sources of supply, all files
could be replicated on 2 or 3 machines, so if one of them is
unavailable, the other copies can be used. Multiple CPUs – for
military, banking, air traffic control, the ability to continue operating
in the face of hardware problems is of great importance
• Saving money Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than large ones File Server machine
• Communication Medium among widely spread people
 Application of Networks
• Access to remote programs
• Access to remote databases
• Value added communication facilities
Networks provide
• Shared access to information
• Permit the movement of data
 Advantages
• Security/Encapsulation Bank ATM
• Distributed Databases www
• Faster problem solving
• Security through redundancy Space Shuttle – 3
computers run the same program so that if one
has a hardware error, the other 2 can override it
• Collaborative Processing Both multiple computers
and multiple users may interact on a task
 Applications
• Sales and Marketing
• Financial Services
• Manufacturing
• Electronic Messaging
• Directory Services
• Information Services
• Electronic Data Interchange
• Teleconferencing
• Cellular telephone
• Cable television
 Telecommunication Concepts
• The message (data and information) is communicated via the signal. The
transmission medium “carries” the signal.
• Relay signals between computer systems and transmission media Analog
signal e.g., electricity current Digital signal- A signal represented by bits
Modem devices that translate data from analog to digital and vice versa
• Media A collective name for materials (magnetic tape, paper, disk etc)
used to transmit data
• Communication media the material used to transmit data and includes
cables, fibre optic cables, radio waves and satellite links
• Communication Devices the parts of the computer that facilitate
communication by using the media Modem, local area network cards,
network hubs and wireless cards
• Interface a device that allows other wise incompatible items to be
connected. It is sometimes an external device with its own power supply
that is plugged into the computer e.g., modems, network cards and
wireless cards
 Modems
They use the already existing telephone network to facilitate computer
communication. Telephone lines were designed to communicate
the human voice, so they transmit data using sound waves or
analog data. Before computer signals can be sent via telephone
lines they must be converted from digital to an analog format. This
process is called modulation. When the signal reaches the receiving
computer it is converted back from analog to digital form, a process
called demodulation.
Modems are usually used to connect a computer to the Internet and
to send and receive faxes via the computer.
Modems constantly check whether the information was received
properly or not.
The information is broken down and sent in groups called Packets.
Each packet is checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.
 Digital Phone Lines
• There is no need to use a modem when using a digital
telephone line such as an ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network) line to connect a computer (or a LAN)
to the Internet because the signal is already a digital
one which a computer can process.
• A larger volume of data is transmitted more quickly
• ISDN line is used for voice, video, image and data
transmission simultaneously, using existing common
carrier lines
• Users can receive telephone calls, transmit faxes and
surf the Internet at the same time using the same line
 Types of Computer Networks
Networks are often categorized by the wired or wireless
transmission medium they support, as well as the scope of
their domains. For example, local area networks (LANs)
interconnect endpoints in a single domain. In
contrast, wide area networks interconnect multiple LANs.
Networks may also be divided into subnetworks, also called
subnets.
Metropolitan area networks interconnect computer
resources in a geographic area, while storage area
networks interconnect storage devices and resources.
Other types of computer networks include personal area
networks (PANs), wireless local area networks (WLANs),
campus area networks (CANs), virtual private networks
(VPNs) and passive optical networks (PONs).
 Local Area Networks
Privately owned networks and link the devices in a single office,
building or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization and
the types of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as 2 PCs and a
printer in someone’s home office or it can extend throughout a
company and include sound, and video peripherals. Currently, LAN
size is limited to a few kilometers. LANs are designed to allow
resources to be shared between PCs or workstations. The resources
to be shared can include hardware, software or data.
Common example: a LAN found in many business environments, links
a work group of task-related computers, for ex: Engineering
workstations or Accounting PCs. One of the computers may be
given a large capacity disk drive and become a server to the other
clients. Software can be stored on the central server and used as
needed by the whole group
In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of
networks by their transmission media and topology. In
general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission
media. The most common LAN topologies are Structured:
bus, ring, star, hierarchical, hybrid Unstructured: Mobile
Adhoc Network (MANET)
A network card is a small circuit inside the computer. It allows
the computer to communicate with others on the network.
A cable is plugged into the card and each computer than
has access to any shared programs, devices and files on
other computers or server. Each network card has a unique
address to make sure the correct data is delivered to it.
Some use cables or are wireless. The cables used may be
twisted pair, coaxial or fibre optic
 Metropolitan Area Network
MAN is designed to extend over an entire city. It may be a
single network such as a cable television network, or it
may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a
larger network so that resources may be shared LAN-
to-LAN or device-to device. Ex: a company can use a
MAN to connect the LANs in all of its offices
throughout the city.
A MAN may be wholly owned and operated by a private
company or it may be a service provided by a public
company, such as a local telephone company. Many
telephone companies provide a popular MAN service
called Switched Multi-Megabit Data Service(SMDS).
 Wide Area Network
WAN provides long distance transmission of data,
voice, image and video information over large
geographical areas that may comprise a country,
a continent or even the whole world.
In contrast to LANs (which depend on their own
hardware for transmission) WANs may utilize
public, leased or private communication devices,
usually in combinations, and can therefore span
an unlimited number of miles.
A WAN owned and used by a single company is
referred to as an Enterprise network
 LAN, MAN, WAN
Characteristic LAN MAN WAN
Full form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Network
Location of Computers are Computers re Computers are
computers located within the located in the city distributed all over
same building and connected the country or
using modem or continent.
telephone lines Connection is made
via satellite
communication link
or via Internet
Example An office whose A bank whose Connection of
different branches are various branches of
departments are spread in a city are a MNC linked using
located in the same connected using microwave satellite
building and public telephone communication
connected via bus exchange and the system or Internet
topology using systems are connection. Each
 Wireless Networks
• Both LANs and WANs may be created using
wireless technology
• There are no wires
• Uses infrared or microwave radio signals to
transmit and receive data- Wireless networks
are used where cables are inconvenient
• More expensive than cable linked networks
• More readily used nowadays as costs decline
 Cellular Networks
• Cell phones are used regularly to communicate while travelling or away
from home/office
• Cell phones offer facilities for browsing the Internet and sending and
receiving mails
How the Cellular Network works?
• It is created when the transmitters are placed in a checkerboard pattern
throughout a service area
• The geographical area that is served by a transmitter is called a CELL.
Unique frequencies are assigned to each cell.
• Each cell phone transmits and receives a signal. When you place a call, the
cell in which the caller is located detects the signal from your cell phone
• The cell then assigns a specific frequency to that call and the call is
transmitted to the receiving unit
• A computer system monitors the strength of the signal
from the cell phone
• As you move away from the transmitter, the signal weakens
• If the signal falls to a preset level, the computer recognizes
that you have left the cell and scans the surrounding cells
to determine the new area into which you have moved
• The transmitter in the new cell takes over the call and a
new frequency is assigned to your phone
• This happens so quickly that you do not detect the transfer.
If you move too far away from any network transmitter, the
connection breaks
 Internet
• The world’s largest network, worldwide collection of networks that
link together millions of computers by means of modems,
telephone lines and other communication devices and media
• It can be accessed either through a file server or through an
Internet Service Provider(ISP) or online service
• A file server is a computer that is permanently connected to the
Internet, used by large organizations
• An ISP is an organization that supplies connections to the Internet
for a fee
• An online service not only provides access to the Internet but also
provides other services such as financial information,
entertainment, hardware and software guides, news and weather
and direct messaging
• Fees for online service are usually higher than for an ISP
• The Internet enables users to send and receive mail electronically
• Email is so quick that traditional mail has become ‘snail’ mail
• Direct Messaging enables users to meet and communicate with
persons all around the world using either typed or voice messages
• The Internet enables employees with PCs to connect to the
organization’s mainframe or super computer without travelling to
those locations. Has made ecommerce possible
• Discussion boards allow participants to type messages about a
given topic. Responses are usually linked to each other to allow the
reader to easily follow the discussion
 Intranet and Extranet
• Intranet-Private network of computers with an organization
that provides functions similar to the public Internet
• These functions include: email and newsgroups
• They do not allow access via the Internet and has security
features to prevent unauthorized access
• Extranet An internal company network that has a
connection to the public Internet and allows users to gain
access via the Internet. It provides access to people in the
organization who are working away from the office
• Web Page A file that is saved on the computer on the
Internet
• Web site A collection of web pages
ISO OSI Open Systems Interconnection
Reference model because it deals with connecting
open systems – that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems. Note that the
OSI model itself is not a network architecture
because it does not specify the exact services and
protocols to be used in each layer. It just tells
what each layer should do.
People Do Not like To See Purple Animals
Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away
All People Seem To Need Data Processing
 OSI Reference Model
The OSI reference model conceptually organizes the process of
communication between computers in terms of seven layers called
Protocol Stacks. The seven layers of the OSI model provides a way
for you to understand how communication across various protocols
take place.
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
The physical layer defines the actual set of wires, plugs and electronic
signals that connect the sending and receiving devices to the
network. The RS-422 interface is a common standard in this layer.
However, RS-232 interface is a common standard for PCs.
The physical layer makes a physical circuit with electrical, optical or
radio signals. Passive hubs, simple active hubs, terminators,
couplers, cables, connectors, repeaters, multiplexers, transmitters,
receivers and trans-receivers are devices associated with the
physical layer.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for gaining access to the network and
transmitting the physical block of data from one device to another.
It includes the error checking necessary to ensure an accurate
transmission. This layer uses the communication protocol that is
most commonly referenced and often implies the specifications for
Layer 1 as well.
Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer makes routing decisions and forwards packets for
devices that are farther away than a single link. A link connects two
network devices and is implemented by the data link layer. Two
devices connected by a link communicate directly with each other
and not through a third device.
In larger networks there may be intermediate systems between any two end
systems, and the network layer makes it possible for the transport layer
and layers above it to send packets without being concerned about
whether the end system is immediately adjacent or several hops away.
The network layer translates logical network addresses into physical
machine addresses. This layer also determines the QoS (namely, priority of
the message) and the route a message will take if there are several ways a
message can get to its destination. The network layer also may break large
packets into smaller chunks if the packet is larger than the largest data
frame the data link layer will accept. The network reassembles the chunks
into packets at the receiving end.
The NL performs several important functions that enable data to arrive at its
destination. The protocols at this layer may choose a specific route
through an internetwork to avoid the excess traffic caused by sending data
over networks and segments that do not need access to it.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
It breaks large message from the session layer into packets to be sent
to the destination computer and reassembles packets into
messages to be presented to the session layer. The transport layer
typically sends an acknowledgement to the originator for messages
received.
Layer 5 – Session Layer
It establishes and terminates the session, queues of the incoming
messages and is responsible for recovering from an abnormally
terminated session. This layer allows applications on separate
computers to share a connection called a session. This layer
provides services such as name lookup and security to allow two
programs to find each other and establish the communication link.
It also provides for data synchronization and check points so that in the event
of a network failure, only the data sent after the point of failure need to
be re-sent. It also controls the dialog between two processes determining
whom they can transmit and from whom can they receive at what point
during the communication. It also provides for dialog between application
programs.
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
The presentation layer translates data between the formats the network
requires and the format the computer expects. The PL does protocol
conversion, data translation, compression and encryption, character set
conversion and the interpretation of graphic commands. A network
redirector is what makes the files on a file server visible to the client
computer.
The network redirector also makes remote printers act as though they are
attached to the local computer. The network redirector operates at
presentation layer.
The presentation layer adapts information to the local environment.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
The top most layer of the OSI model, provides services that
directly support user applications such as database access,
email and file transfers. It also allows applications to
communicate with applications on other computers as
though they were on the same computer. When a
programmer writes an application program that uses
network services, this is the layer the application program
will access.
Electronic mail and Query languages are examples of this
layer.
This layer provides for the connection of application programs
on separate machines.
 OSI model
Layer Name of unit
exchanged
7 Application Application Application APDU
Protocol
6 Presentation Presentation PresentationPPDU
Protocol
5 Session Session Session SPDU
Protocol
4 Transport Transport Transport TPDU
Protocol
3 Network Network Network Packet

2 Data Link Data Link Data Link Frame

1 Physical Physical Physical Bit

Host A Host B
 OSI services
File, Print, Message, 7 Application Layer
Database and application Type of comm.
Services email, file transfer,
client/server
Data Translation 6 Presentation Layer
Encryption, Data
conversion
Dialog control 5 Session Layer
Start/stop session,
maintains order
End-to-end connection 4 Transport Layer
Ensures delivery of entire file or
message
Routing 3 Network Layer
Routes data to different
LANs and WANs based on network address
Framing 2 Data Link Layer MAC, LLC
Transmits packets from node to node
based on station address
Sending 1s/0s across 1 Physical Layer
The wire electrical signal and cabl ing
 Functions performed by different
layers in the OSI model
Layer No. Layer Name Description
7 Application Interfaces user apps with network
functionality, controls how apps access the network, and
generate error messages. Protocols at this level include
HTTP, FTP, SMTP and NFS
6 Presentation Translates data to be transmitted by apps
into a format suitable for transport over the network.
Redirector software, such as the workstation service for
Microsoft Windows NT, is located at this level. Network
shells are also defined at this level
5 Session Defines how connections can be established,
maintained and terminated. Also performs name
resolution functions
 OSI
4 Transport Sequences packets so that they can be reassembled at
the destination in the proper order. Generates acknowledgements
and retransmits packets. Assembles packets after they are
received.
3 Network Defines logical host addresses such as IP addresses,
creates packet headers and routes packets across an internetwork
using routers and layer 3 switches. Strips the headers from the
packets at the receiving end
2 Data Link Specifies how data bits are grouped into frames, and
specifies frame formats. Responsible for error correction, flow
control, hardware addressing (such as MAC addresses) and how
devices such as hubs, bridges, repeaters and layer 2 switches
operate. The project 802 specifications divide this layer into 2 sub
layers, the logical link control(LLC) layer and the media access
control (MAC) layer
 OSI
1 Physical Defines network transmission media, signaling methods, bit
synchronization, architecture (such as Ethernet or Token ring)and cabling
topologies. Defines how NICs interact with the media(cabling).
You can think of each layer as being logically connected to the same layer on a
different computer on the network. For example, the application layer
on one machine communicates with the application layer on another
machine. But this communication is logical only; physical communication
occurs when packets of data are sent down from the application layer of
the transmitting computer, encapsulated with header information by
each lower layer and then put on the wire at the physical layer of the
transmitting computer. After travelling along the wire, the packets are
picked up by the physical layer of the receiving computer, passed up the
7 layers while each layer strips off its associated header information and
then passes to the application layer of the receiving computer, where
the receiving application can process the data.
 Media Access
A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by media links. A node
can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
The links connecting the devices are called communication
channels. The media defines the speed at which data can travel
through a connection (the data rate). Today’s networks are moving
to faster and faster transmission media.
Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided
and unguided.
Guided media, provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber optic cable. Twisted pair
and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electrical current. Optical fiber is a
glass or plastic cable that accepts and transports signals in the form
of light.
Unguided media, or wireless communication, transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. Instead,
signals are broadcast through air (or, in a few cases, water), and
thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.
A media access method refers to the manner a computer gains and
controls access to the network’s physical medium (defines how the
network places data on the cable and how it takes it off). Common
media access methods include:
• CSMA/CD Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
• CSMA/CA Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
• Token Passing
• Demand Priority
One of the primary concerns with media access is to prevent packets
from colliding. A collision occurs when two or more computers
transmit signals at the same time.
“Carrier Sense” means that each station on the network continually
listens to (test) the cable for the pretense of a signal prior to
transmitting. “Multiple Access” means that there are many
computers attempting to transmit and compete for the opportunity
to send data. “Collision Detection” means that when a collision is
detected, the station will stop transmitting and wait a random
length of time before transmitting. CSMA/CD works best in an
environment where relatively fewer, longer data frames are
transmitted. They are used on Ethernet networks.
CSMA/CA Instead of detecting and reacting to collisions, CSMA/CA
tries to avoid them by having each computer signal its intention to
transmit before actually transmitting. CSMA/CA is slower then
CSMA/CD and is used on Apple networks.
Token Ring Collisions are eliminated under token passing
because only a computer that possesses a free token (a
small data frame) is allowed to transmit. Used on Token
ring and ArcNet network. It works best in an
environment where relatively a large number of short
data frames are being transmitted.
Demand Priority A new Ethernet media access method.
Used with 100 Mbps Ethernet. It requires a smart hub.
Station must require permission from hub before they
can transmit. Stations can transmit and receive at the
same time. Transmission can be prioritized
 Network Layer Problems
Network addressing issues and routing issues are the most
common problems that occur in the network layer. By
verifying all the routing protocols and IP addressing
schemes used, tracking down the network issue can be
easy. A few possible causes for network issues are damaged
networking devices, incorrect device configuration,
network bandwidth and authentication issues. “Ping” is a
handy and effective troubleshooting command to locate
network issues in this layer. A successful ping past the
default gateway means that the Internet is working
properly. “Trace”, “netstat”, “route”, and “netguard”
commands are a few other troubleshooting commands that
can be used in the network layer
 TCP/IP
The protocols used on the Internet are called TCP/IP. It has two parts:
1. TCP deals with exchange of sequential data
2. IP handles packet forwarding and is used on the Internet

TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte

stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on
any other machine in the Internet. It fragments the incoming byte
stream into discrete parts and passes each one onto the internet
layer. At the destination machine, the receiving TCP process
reassembles the received messages into the output stream. TCP
also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp
a slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.
IP works at the network layer. Its functions and methods it uses are:
• For addressing, IP uses the logical network address
• For switching purposes, it uses the packet-switching method
• For route selection, it uses the dynamic routing table’s method
• For connection services, IP provides error control
IP is a connectionless, datagram protocol. IP uses packet switching and
performs route selection by using dynamic routing tables that are
referenced at each hop. The packets making up a message could be
routed differently through the internetwork depending on the state
of the network at each hop. For example, if a link were to go down
or become congested, packets will be sent through a different
route.
Appended to each packet is an IP header, which includes
source and destination information. IP uses sequence
numbering if it is necessary to fragment a packet into
smaller parts and reassembles it at its destination or at an
intermediate point. IP performs error checking on the
header information by way of a checksum.
IP addresses are unique, 4 byte addresses that must be
assigned to every addressable device or node on the
internetwork. A big message is divided into smaller packets
by the TCP. These are given a header and then enveloped
by the IP to be sent to the addresses by various routes
using the router. At the receiving end, each envelop is
placed in order and the message is reassembled by the TCP
and forwarded to the addressee.
 TCP/IP Reference Model
Computer A Computer B
Application Application
Transport Transport
Internet Internet
Network Interface Network Interface
• Application Layer enables client apps to access
the other layers and defines the protocols that
apps use to exchange data. One of these
application protocols is the HTTP which is used to
transfer web page files
• The transport layer is responsible for providing the
application layer with communication and packet
services. The layer includes the TCP and other
protocols
• The Internet layer is responsible for addressing,
routing and packaging data packets called IP
datagrams. The internet protocol is one of the
protocols used in this layer
• Network interface layer At the bottom of the
reference model, the NIL is responsible for placing
packets and receiving them from the network medium,
which could be any networking technology
 OSI and TCP/IP: A Comparison
OSI
Seven Layers
These are all different layers
These are all different layers
The OSI reference model was devised
before the protocols were invented
TCP/IP
Four Layers
The Application Layer includes the OSI
Application Layer, Presentation Layer and
the Session Layer
The Network Interface Layer includes the
OSI Data Link Layer and Physical Layer
Here, the protocols came first and then
came the model
 Internetwork
An internetwork is the interconnection of multiple networks.
Internetworking is the process of planning, implementing, and
maintaining an internetwork. This involves the tasks:
• Determining which IP address classes and network IDs should be
used
• Dividing the internetwork into different subnets using a custom
subnet mask
• Configuring dynamic routers for efficient exchange of routing
information
• Acquiring tools and skills for troubleshooting internetwork
problems
Thus, in order to create an internetwork, we need networking devices
routers and gateways. Computers that interconnect two networks
and pass packets from one to the other are called routers or
Gateways.
 Host
In any network, there exists a set of computers
intended for running user’s application programs.
Such computers are called host computers.
Since an internetwork is an interconnection of
several networks, it may have several host
computers. For example, the largest internetwork
is the Internet. Hence Internet has hundreds of
host computers. A user can communicate with
other host computers by tools such as e-mail,
Telnet, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
 Backbone Network
When several networks are interconnected, communication problems
may arise among networks. Hence a broadband or fibre optic
backbone is used to connect all networks on the internetwork.
LANs are interconnected through repeater, bridge, router or
gateway.
Repeater
A repeater is a low level device that transmits bits of information from
one network to another. It is a dumb device. It does not have its
own software. It blindly copies bits of information without
understanding what it is doing. It makes two physical networks into
logically one network. It is similar to the physical layer of the seven-
layer model. If two LANs of the same network standard are
connected through a repeater, it simply receives signals from one
LAN, amplifies the signals, and sends it to the other LAN.
Bridge
Bridges are devices that can transmit data between two
heterogeneous LANs at the data link layer of the OSI model.
A bridge is more powerful than a repeater. It connects two
networks at the data link layer. It is useful when two
networks have different data link layers but the same
network layer. For example, it connects a LAN with Ethernet
to another LAN with token bus. It has software to copy data
frames on selective basis and to make changes while
copying.
A repeater simply forwards bits as received. But a bridge
stores frames of data and then sends it.
Router
Routers are multiport/multiprotocol devices containing software ( two
main pieces – OS and the routing protocol) that helps in
determining the best path out of the available paths, for a
particular transmission. It works at OSI level 3 – Network Layer. It
uses logical and physical addressing to connect two or more
logically separate networks.
A router connects LANs having same transport layer, but different
network layers. For example, it connects a LAN with token bus to
another LAN with X.25. It is also used to connect a LAN and a WAN.
It looks for the best path to pass packets of data to the destination.
Therefore, routers are more expensive than bridges.
There are devices which combine the features of bridge and router.
These devices are called brouters.
Gateway
The gateway potentially operate in all 7 layers of the OSI model. It is a
protocol converter. A router by itself transfers, accepts and relays
packets only across networks using similar protocols. A gateway, on
the other hand, can accept a packet formatted for one protocol
(e.g., AppleTalk) and convert it to a packet formatted for another
protocol (e.g., TCP/IP) before forwarding it .
A gateway connects LANs with different protocols. It operates at
application layer of OSI seven-layered model. It picks the packets of
data from a LAN, restructures the packets according to the protocol
of receiving LAN, then transmits the packet. It can connect
1. Two LANs
2. A LAN and a WAN, and
3. A WAN and a WAN
 IEEE Project 802
Project 802 defines network standards for the physical components of
a network- the interface card and the cabling – which are accounted
for the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model.
These standards, called the 802 specifications, have several areas of
responsibility including
• Network adapter cards
• Wide area network components
• Components used to create twisted-pair and coaxial cable networks
The 802 specifications define the way network adapter cards access
and transfer data over physical media. This includes connecting,
maintaining, and disconnecting network devices
 LAN standards 802 committee
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 Logical Link control (LLC)
802.3 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) LAN(ethernet)
802.4 Token bus LAN
802.5 Token ring LAN
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Group
802.8 Fiber-optic Technical Advisory Group
802.9 Integrated voice/Data network
802.10 Network security
802.11 wireless networks
802.12 Demand Priority Access LAN, 100 Base VG any LAN
 Characteristics of Inter-organizational
Information Systems
• These systems help several firms share information in
order to co-ordinate their work, collaborate on
common projects, or sell and buy products and
services
• Internet has emerged as a global public network of
networks
• Some inter-organizational systems are employed in
knowledge work
• Can be used to connect a firm’s computers to the
information systems of its customers, suppliers and
business partners and are also used to execute
business transactions
 Networks, Clusters and Grids
A computer network, also referred to as a data network, is a series of
interconnected nodes that can transmit, receive and exchange data,
voice and video traffic. Network devices use a variety of protocols
and algorithms to specify exactly how endpoints should transmit
and receive data. For example, the Ethernet standard establishes a
common language for wired networks to communicate, and the
802.11 standard does the same for wireless local area networks
(WLANs).
All packet switched networks use TCP/IP to establish a standard means
of communication. Each end point in a network has a unique
identifier which is used to indicate the source or destination of the
transmission. Identifiers include the node’s IP address or Media
Access Control (MAC) address. End point nodes include switches
and routers, servers, PCs, phones, networked printers and other
peripheral computing devices, as well as sensors and actuators.
A network’s capacity is how much traffic the
network can support at any one time while still
meeting service level agreements (SLAs).
Network capacity is measured in terms of
bandwidth. Bandwidth is quantified by the
theoretical maximum number of bits per second
that can pass through a network device.
Throughput is a measure of the actual speed of a
successful transmission after accounting for
factors like latency, processing power and
protocol overhead.
 Network Access
Networks can be public or private. While anyone can access
the public Internet, access to private and virtually private
networks requires the end user to be assigned access
credentials.
In the enterprise, network access control systems, typically
use security policies to control access to the organisation’s
network. This means that network devices are not allowed
to connect unless they meet a pre-defined business policy,
which is enforced by network access control products.
When deployed, network access control systems
immediately discover all the devices connected to a
network, categorize them by type and then react to them
based on pre-configured compliance rules implemented by
the organisation’s security team.
NAC products enable device access to a network
based on a specific, per device basis, with
granular controls over what type and level of
access is allowed. These controls are delivered
by policies that are defined in a central control
system. Most network access control systems
can also integrate with Active Directory in
order to control network access based on
group policy, ensuring users only have the
network access required to fulfill their jobs.
 Cluster and Grid Computing
The main difference between cluster and grid computing is that the
cluster computing is a homogeneous network in which devices have
the same hardware components and the same operating system
(OS) connected together in a cluster while the grid computing is a
heterogeneous network in which devices have different hardware
components and different OSs connected together in a grid.
Cluster and Grid computing are techniques that help to solve
computation problems by connecting several computers or devices
together. They increase the efficiency and throughput. They also
help to utilise resources. In cluster computing, the devices in the
cluster perform the same task. All the devices function as a single
unit. It is used to solve problems in databases or WebLogic
Application Servers. On the other hand, in grid computing, the
devices in the grid perform a different task. It is used for predictive
modeling, simulations, automation, engineering design etc.
In cluster computing, two or more computers work
together to solve a problem. The cluster devices are
connected via a fast LAN. Each device in the cluster is
called a node.
Cluster computing was developed due to a variety of
reasons such as availability of low-cost
microprocessors, high speed networks and software for
high performance distributed computing. It is
applicable for small business as well as for fast
supercomputers. Overall, cluster computing improves
performance, and it is cost-effective than using a set of
individual computers.
In grid computing, multiple computers work together to
solve a problem. The devices have different hardware
and OS and therefore the network is heterogeneous. It
is based on distributed computing with non-interactive
workloads. In grid computing the task is divided into
several independent sub tasks. Each machine on the
grid is assigned with a sub task. After completing them,
the results are sent to the main machine. Therefore
each device or node in the grid performs a different
task. The devices in grid computing are installed with a
special software called middleware.
 Cyber Safety
Cyber Safety is the safe and responsible use of information and
communication technology. It is not only about keeping information safe
and secure but also about being responsible with that information, being
respectful of other people online, and using good ‘netiquette’
It is a branch of computer technology that is applied to networks and
corresponding computers. The objective of this field is to gain knowledge
to limit computer crimes, especially those associated with hacking and
identity theft by ensuring security and safety of personal information.
The term cyber safety means the collective mechanism and process by which
valuable information and services are protected from publication,
tampering, or an assortment of unauthorized activities that are planned
and implemented by untrustworthy individuals or unplanned events.
To be cyber safe , there are several strategies which can be adopted to
prevent unwanted computer behavior.
 Safely Browsing the Web
Protecting yourself by securing your devices, software and connections is
important, but making the right choices when doing things on the web can
make a huge difference to your safety online.
Ensure your safety while browsing the web by following the tips:
a) Before you start – Update your software
b) Protect your web browser (and let your web browser protect you)
c) Observe safe online behavior
d) Online transaction handling
e) Cookies and security
f) Bookmark important sites
Most importantly, remember that the care you take to protect yourself in
your everyday life extends to your online life. Don’t share your personal
information unless you are absolutely certain that it will not be
compromised. Be aware that any information you share over a public
wireless hot spot is not secure and can be seen by anyone looking at
information as it travels over that network.
 Identity Protection while using
Internet
Identity theft is a type of fraud that involves using
someone else’s identity to steal money or gain other
benefits. Online identity theft refers to an act of
stealing someone’s personal information such as name,
login details, credit card details, etc., and then posing
as that person online. The intent is to use that identity
for personal gain, generally with the intent to cheat
others.
To be safe fro this, we should follow Private Browsing or
Anonymous Browsing on Internet. A type of browsing
wherein the browser opens in incognito mode or
through proxy or VPN and does not store cookies, is
called private browsing.
 Ways of tracking your Identity
Whenever you access or visit a website, your
web browser may reveal your location
through your device’s IP address. It can also
provide your search and browsing history
which can be used by people like advertisers
or criminal who intend to use it for some
personal gains. In other words, websites track
you through various methods – IP address,
Cookies and Tracking Scripts, HTTP Referrer,
Super Cookies, User Agents.
IP Address
A unique address of your device when you connect
to the Internet. When you share your IP address
on network with other devices, a website can
determine your geographical location.
Cookies and Tracking Scripts
Cookies are small text files on your computer
storing small piece of information related to your
online text. They can identify you and track your
browsing activities.
HTTP Referrer
It is an HTTP header field that identifies the address of the web page (i.e., the URL)
that links to the resource being requested by the user. By checking the referrer, the
new web page can see where the request originated and can pass your details
such as IP address, your mail id, passwords etc., to these linked sites.
When we click on the link, the browser will send the HTTP Referrer to the new site. In
other words, microsoft.com will know the URL where we are coming from.
Super Cookies
These are persistent cookies, i.e., they come back even after being deleted. They store
cookie data in multiple places, for example, in Flash cookies, Silverlight storage,
your browsing history and HTML5 local storage,etc.
User Agent
Your browser also sends a user agent every time you connect to a website. This tells
websites about your browser and operating system, providing another piece of
data that can be stored and used to target ads.
 Confidentiality of Information
Confidentiality is the term used to prevent the disclosure of information to unauthorized individuals or
systems.
Data should be kept secret. The owner of data has to decide who can access the data and who can’t.
One of the most common threats to confidentiality nowadays is Password Hacking in Online Money
Transaction Systems.
Confidentiality of our important information can be maintained by observing the following practices:
1. Prevention by encrypting the data and by limiting the places where it might appear.
2. Using firewall wherever possible.
3. Controlling browser settings to block tracking.
4. Browsing privately wherever possible.
5. Taking care while posting on social media
6. Ensuring safe sites while entering crucial information
7. Ensuring that the address contains HTTPS and a padlock sign.
8. Carefully handling emails
9. Not giving sensitive information on wireless networks.
10. Avoiding use of public computers.
 Cyber Crime
Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a
computer is the object of the crime(hacking,
phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to
commit an offence (child pornography, hate
crimes). Cybercriminals may use computer
technology to access personal information,
business trade secrets or use the Internet for
exploitative or malicious purposes. Criminals can
also use computers for communication and
document or data storage. Criminals who
perform these illegal activities are often referred
to as Hackers.
 Cyber Trolls
A cyber troll is a person who starts quarrels or
upsets people on the Internet to distract and sow
discord by posting inflammatory and digressive,
extraneous, or off-topic messages to an online
community (such as a newsgroup, forum, chat
room, or blog) with the intent of provoking
readers into displaying emotional responses and
normalizing tangential discussion, whether for
the troll’s amusement or for a specific gain.
More often these cyber trolls end up as cyber
bullies.
 Cyber Bullying
Cyber bullying is the attack upon an individual or group
through the use of electronic means such as instant
messaging, social media, email and other forms of online
communication with the intent to abuse, intimidate, or
overpower.
Cyber Bullying Types
• Posting any kind of humiliating content about the victim
• Hacking the victim’s account
• Sending or posting vulgar messages online
• Threatening to commit acts of violence
• Stalking by means of calls, messages, etc
• Threats of child pornography
 Cyber Stalking
Cyber stalking is the use of Internet or other
electronic means to stalk or harass an individual,
a group of individuals, or an organization.
It may include the making of false accusations or
statements of fact (as in defamation), monitoring,
making threats, identity theft, damage to data or
equipment, the solicitation of minors for
objectionable activities, or gathering information
that may be used to harass somebody.
 Spreading Rumours Online
With the wide spread use of social networking sites
nowadays, people think that they can post anything
and everything on these sites by creating fake email ids
and masking their actual identification and believe that
they will never be caught. Through such fake profiles,
they post false information and spread rumours or
comments which may hurt others and result in
quarrels, and sometimes even result in communal
fights.
Thus, spreading rumours should be checked and taken
care of as it comes under the category of cybercrime
and is a punishable offence under the IT Act.
 CyberForensics
Cyberforensics is an electronic discovery
technique used to determine and reveal
technical criminal evidence. It often involves
electronic data storage extraction for legal
purposes.
Cyberforensics is a viable way of interpreting
evidence.
 IT Act 2000
The IT Act 2000 is an act of the Indian Parliament (No.21 of 2000)
notified on 17 October, 2000. It is the primary law in India dealing
with cybercrime and electronic commerce.
The original act contained 94 sections, divided into 13 chapters and 4
schedules. The laws apply to the whole of India. Persons of other
nationalities can also be indicted under the law if the crime involves
a computer or network located in India.
A major amendment to this act was made in 2008. It introduced
Section 66A which penalizes sending of “ offensive messages”. It
also introduced Section 69, which gave authorities the power of
“interception or monitoring or decryption of any information
through any computer resource”. It also introduced penalties for
child porn, cyber terrorism and voyeurism. It was passed on 22 Dec,
2008 without any debate in the Lok Sabha.
Appropriate Usage of Social Media
Social Media refers to web and mobile technologies and
practices that people use to share content, opinion,
experiences and perspective online.
Social networking sites can support participation,
collaboration and community building and prove a useful
resource for team-based projects, particularly those
involving joint-problem solving. The use of social
networking sites can extend to peer mentoring, informal
student interaction around specific projects, online
discussion and collaboration, promotion of events, and
pooling of resources.
Prominent social media platforms – Facebook, Twitter,
YouTube, LinkedIn, Blogging sites
 Network Security Threats
A treat refers to anything that has the potential to
cause serious harm to a computer system. They
can put individuals, computer systems and
business computers at risk. Therefore,
vulnerabilities have to be fixed so that attackers
cannot infiltrate the system and cause damage.
Network security measures are needed to protect
data during their transmission and to guarantee
that data transmissions are authentic.
 Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks
DoS attacks are those attacks that prevent the
legitimate users from accessing or using
resources and information. These types of attacks
may eat up all the resources of the system and
the computer attains a halt state. The various DoS
attacks are:
Denial of access to information
Denial of access to application
Denial of access to resources
Denial of access to a website
 Malware
Short for “Malicious Software” is a file or code, typically
delivered over a network, that infects, explores, steals
or conducts virtually any behavior an attacker wants.
Though varied in type and capabilities, malware usually
has one of the following objectives:
• Provide remote control for an attacker to use an
infected machine
• Send spam from the infected machine to unsuspecting
targets
• Investigate the infected user’s local network
• Steal sensitive data
Viruses
Programs that copy themselves throughout a computer or network. Viruses
can only be activated when a user opens the program. At their worst,
viruses can corrupt or delete data, use the user’s email to spread or erase
everything on the hard disk.
Worms
Self-replicating viruses that exploit security vulnerabilities to automatically
spread themselves across computers and networks. Unlike many viruses,
worms do not attach to existing programs or alter files. They typically go
unnoticed until replication reaches a scale that consumes significant
system resources or network bandwidth.
Trojans
Malware disguised in what appears to be legitimate software. Once
activated, Trojans will conduct whatever action they have been
programmed to carry out. Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans do not
replicate or reproduce through infection.
 Zombie Computers and Botnets
In Computer Science, a zombie is a computer connected to
the Internet that has been compromised by a hacker,
computer virus or trojan horse and can be used to perform
malicious tasks under remote direction.
Zeus, Koobface, Tidserv, Hamweq, Swizzor, Gammima are a
few examples of Zombie computers that have been used
for Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks, Spam,
Phishing, Information theft and distributing other malware.
Botnets (robot network) are often used to spread email spam
and launch DoS attacks. Most owners of zombie computers
are unaware that their system is being used in this way.
Spyware
Malware that collects information about the usage of the
infected computer and communicates it back to the
attacker.
Phishing
It is an attempt to acquire sensitive information such as user
names, passwords, and credit card details by masquerading
as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication.
Phishing often occurs through emails and instant messaging
and may contain links to websites that direct the user to
enter their private information.
These fake websites are often designed to look identical to
their legitimate counterparts to avoid suspicion.
Eavesdropping
An eavesdropping attack, also known as sniffing or
snooping attack, is an incursion where someone tries
to steal information that computers, smartphones, or
other devices transmit over a network. An
eavesdropping attack takes advantage of unsecured
network communications in order to access data being
sent and received. Eavesdropping attacks are difficult
to detect because they do not cause network
transmissions to appear to be operating abnormally.
 Safely Communicating Data - Secure
Connection
A secure connection is a connection that is encrypted by one or more security
protocols to ensure the security of data flowing between two or more
nodes. When a connection is not encrypted, it can be easily listened to by
anyone and is even prone to threats by malicious software and rogue and
unexpected events.
Anyone who wants to get information from a non-secured connection can do
so since they can easily go through, in and out of the computer’s network
taking with them important data such as login, passwords and other
private information.
Secure connections, as they are supposed to protect data being transferred
from one computer to another, must be able to do three main tasks:
1. Prevent third parties from getting hold of confidential data
2. Validate the identification of the person first who wishes to access and
exchange data
3. Protect information from being viewed or altered by unknown parties
There are many methods to establish a secure connection
but most of them involve data encryption.
Data encryption is a method which hides information
from unauthorized parties. This method needs an
appropriate program installed on both computers
involved in the connection that will encrypt and
decrypt the information. Among these are our basic
security protocols embedded in main communication
protocols like TCP/IP, HTTPS, POP3 or IMAP.
Firewalls and anti virus software may also serve in
creating secure connections in some form.
 HTTP vs. HTTPS
When you request a HTTPS connection to a web page, the website will
initially send its SSL certificate to your browser. This certificate contains
the public key needed to begin the secure session. Based on this initial
exchange, your browser and the website then initiate the ‘SSL handshake’.
The SSL handshake involves the generation of shared secrets to establish a
uniquely secure connection between yourself and the website.
When a trusted SSL Digital certificate is used during a HTTPS connection,
users will see a padlock icon in the browser address bar. When an
extended validation certificate is installed on a website, the address bar
will turn green.
All communications sent over regular HTTP connections are in ‘plain text’ and
can be read by any hacker who manages to break into the connection
between your browser and the website. With an HTTPS connection, all
communications are securely encrypted. This means that even if
somebody manages to break into the connection, they would not be able
to decrypt any of the data which passes between you and the website.
 Identity Verification
An identity verification service is used to ensure that users or
customers provide information that is associated with the identity
of a real person. The service may verify the authenticity of physical
identity documents such as a driver’s licence or passport, called
documentary verification, or may verify identity information against
authoritative sources such as a credit bureau or government data,
called non-documentary verification.
Identity verification service is used both online and in person to verify
identity. These services are used by some social networking sites,
Internet forums, and wikis to stop sock puppetry, underage signups,
spamming and illegal activities like harassment, scams and money
laundering. These services are required to establish bank accounts
and other financial accounts in many jurisdictions.