Chapter 11 A

Fundamentals of the Nervous
System and Nervous Tissue

CHAPTER 11
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe the variety of neuroglia cells. Describe
the structure of a neuron.
 Describe the different types of neurons.
 Describe the phases of an action potential.
 Compare and contrast absolute refractory period
and relative refractory period.
 Describe how an AP is propagated down a neuron.
 Describe the events at a chemical synapse.

Nervous System
 The master controlling and communicating system of
the body
 Functions
 ______________________– monitoring stimuli -

receptors
 ______________________ – interpretation of
sensory input - CNS
 ______________________– response to stimuli -

effectors
Sensory input
Integration
Motor output

Organization of the Nervous System
 Central nervous system (CNS)
 Interprets sensory input and dictates motor output
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and

brain
Central nervous Peripheral nervous
system (CNS) system (PNS)
•Brain
•Cranial nerves
•Spinal cord
•Spinal nerves
•Ganglia

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): 2 Divisions
 Sensory (afferent) division
 Sensory afferent fibers – carry impulses from skin,

skeletal muscles and joints to the CNS
 Visceral afferent fibers – transmit impulses from

visceral organs to the CNS
 Motor (efferent) division

 Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs

Motor Division: Two Main Parts
 Somatic nervous system
 Conscious control of skeletal muscles
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
 Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and

glands
 Divisions – sympathetic and parasympathetic

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain and spinal cord Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Integrative and control centers Communication lines between the
CNS and the rest of the body
Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division

Somatic and visceral sensory Motor nerve fibers
nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS
Conducts impulses from to effectors (muscles and glands)
receptors to the CNS
Somatic sensory Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

fiber
Skin system system (ANS)
Somatic motor Visceral motor
(voluntary) (involuntary)
Conducts impulses Conducts impulses
from the CNS to from the CNS to
skeletal muscles cardiac muscles,
Visceral sensory fiber smooth muscles,
Stomach and glands
Skeletal
muscle
Motor fiber of somatic nervous system
Sympathetic division Parasympathetic

Mobilizes body division
systems during activity Conserves energy
Promotes house-
keeping functions
during rest
Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS

Heart
Structure
Function
Sensory (afferent)
division of PNS Parasympathetic motor fiber of ANS Bladder
Motor (efferent)
division of PNS

Histology of Nerve Tissue
 The two principal cell types of the nervous system are:
 ___________________ – excitable cells that

transmit electrical signals
 _______________________________ – cells that

surround and wrap neurons
 Highly cellular; little extracellular space
 Tightly packed

Supporting Cells: Neuroglia
 The supporting cells (neuroglia):
 Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons
 Segregate and insulate neurons
 Guide young neurons to the proper connections
 Promote health and growth

Astrocytes (CNS)
 Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched
neuroglial cells
 They cling to neurons and cover capillaries
 Function
 Support and brace neurons
 Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies
 Guide migration of young neurons
 Control the chemical environment

Capillary
Neuron
Astrocyte
(a) Astrocytes are the most abundant

CNS neuroglia.
Microglia and Ependymal Cells (CNS)
 Microglia – small, oval cells with spiny processes
 ____________
 Ependymal cells – range in shape from squamous to

columnar
 They line the central cavities of the brain and

spinal column
 Assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring

cerebrospinal fluid

Neuron
Microglial
cell
(b) Microglial cells are defensive cells in

the CNS.

Fluid-filled cavity
Ependymal
cells
Brain or
spinal cord
tissue
(c) Ependymal cells line cerebrospinal
fluid-filled cavities.

Neuroglia in the CNS.
a Light micrograph
showing the
ependyma of the
central canal of
the spinal cord Ependymal
cells
Central canal
Gray matter
White matter
Gray
matter
Central canal of spinal cord
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Oligodendrocytes, Schwann Cells, and
Satellite Cells
 Oligodendrocytes (CNS) – branched cells that wrap
CNS nerve fibers and form myelin sheath
 Schwann cells (PNS) – surround fibers of the PNS and

form myelin sheath
 Satellite cells (PNS) surround neuron cell bodies
 Regulate O2, CO2, nutrient, and neurotransmitter

levels around neurons

Oligodendrocytes

Satellite
Cell body of neuron
cells
Schwann cells
(forming myelin sheath)
Nerve fiber
(e) Satellite cells and Schwann cells (which

form myelin) surround neurons in the PNS.

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe the variety of neuroglia cells.

Neurons
 Functional units of the nervous system
 Composed of a body, axon and dendrites

 Long-lived
 ____________________, with a few exceptions
 Their plasma membrane function in:
 Electrical signaling

Structure of a Motor Neuron

Neuron Cell Body (Soma)
 Contains the nucleus with a nucleolus and many

organelles
 Has no centrioles
 Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)
 Contains an axon hillock – cone-shaped area from

which axons arise
 In most, plasma membrane is part of receptive region

that receives input info from other neurons

Neuron Cell Body (Soma)
 Most neuron cell bodies are located in CNS

 Nuclei: clusters of neuron cell bodies in CNS
 Ganglia: clusters of neuron cell bodies in PNS

Neuron Processes
 Armlike processes that extend from cell body
 Two types of processes
 Dendrites
 Axon
 CNS contains both neuron cell bodies and their

processes
 PNS contains chiefly neuron processes
 Tracts
 Bundles of neuron axons in CNS
 Nerves
 Bundles of neuron axons in PNS
Dendrites
 Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes
 They are the receptive regions of the neuron
 Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials

(not action potentials)


Axons: Structure
 Slender processes of uniform diameter arising from the
hillock
 Long axons are called nerve fibers
 Usually there is only one unbranched axon per neuron
 Occasional branches are called axon collaterals
 Axonal terminal – branched terminus of an axon
 Can be 10,000 terminal branches

Axons: Function
 Generate and transmit action potentials
 Secrete ___________________________ from the

axonal terminals
 Sends signal away toward target cell


Myelin Sheath
 Whitish, fatty (protein-lipid), segmented sheath around
most long axons
 It functions to:
 Protect the axon
 Electrically insulate fibers from one another
 Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission

Myelin Sheath and Outer Collar: Formation
 Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS
 A Schwann cell:
 Envelopes an axon in a trough
 Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane
 Lays concentric layers of membrane that make up
the myelin sheath
 Outer collar– remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of a
Schwann cell

Schwann
cell plasma
membrane
Schwann cell 1 A Schwann cell

cytoplasm envelops an axon.
Axon Schwann cell

nucleus
2 The Schwann cell

then rotates around
the axon, wrapping
its plasma membrane
loosely around it in
successive layers.
3 The Schwann cell

cytoplasm is forced
Myelin from between the
sheath membranes. The tight
membrane wrappings
surrounding the axon form
Schwann cell the myelin sheath.
cytoplasm
Myelination of a nerve fiber (axon)
Nerve fiber myelination by Schwann cells in the PNS.
Myelin sheath
Outer collar
of perinuclear
cytoplasm Axon
(of Schwann
cell)
Cross-sectional view of a myelinated axon (electron

micrograph 24,000x)
Myelin Sheath Gaps
 Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent

Schwann cells
 AKA Nodes of Ranvier

Unmyelinated Axons
 A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but coiling

does not take place
 Schwann cells partially enclose 15 or more axons

Schwann Cells, Peripheral Axons, and Formation of the Myelin Sheath (Part 2 of 2).
Neurilemma Axons
Schwann
cell #3
nucleus
Axons
Unmyelinated axons
b The enclosing of a group of unmyelinated axons by a

single Schwann cell. A series of Schwann cells is
required to cover the axons along their entire length.

Axons of the CNS
 Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present
 Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes
 Can wrap up to 60 axons at once
 Myelin sheath gaps are widely spaced
 There is no outer collar

Oligodendrocytes

Regions of the Brain and Spinal Cord
 White matter – dense collections of

_____________________ fibers
 Gray matter – mostly cell bodies and

_____________________ fibers

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe the structure of a neuron.

Neuron Classification
 Structural:
 ___________________— three or more processes
 ___________________— two processes (axon and

dendrite)
 ____________________— one T-like process
(two axons)
 Also called pseudounipolar

Structural Classifications of Neurons.
Anaxonic neuron Bipolar neuron Unipolar neuron Multipolar neuron
Dendrites Dendrites
Initial
segment Cell body
Dendritic
branches Axon
Dendrite
Cell body
Cell body
Axon
Axon
Cell
body
Axon
Axon
terminals
Axon Axon
terminals terminals
a Anaxonic neurons have b Bipolar neurons have c Unipolar neurons have a d Multipolar neurons have
more than two processes, two processes single elongated process, more than two processes;
and they are all dendrites. separated by the with the cell body located there is a single axon and
cell body. off to the side. multiple dendrites.

Neuron Classification
 Functional:
 Sensory (afferent) — transmit impulses

___________________ the CNS
 Motor (efferent) — carry impulses

___________________ from the CNS
 Interneurons (association neurons) — shuttle

signals through CNS pathways
 99% of neurons are interneurons

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe the different types of neurons.

Neurophysiology
 Neurons are highly excitable
 Action potentials, or nerve impulses, are:
 __________________________carried along the

length of axons
 Always the same regardless of stimulus
 The underlying functional feature of the nervous

system

Principles of Electricity
 Opposite charges attract each other
 Energy is required to separate opposite charges across

a membrane
 If opposite charges are separated, the system has

potential energy
 Energy is liberated when the charges move toward one

another

Electricity Definitions
 Voltage (V) – measure of potential energy generated by
separated charge
 Potential difference – voltage measured between two
points
 Current (I) – the flow of electrical charge between two
points
 Resistance (R) – hindrance to charge flow
 Insulator – substance with high electrical resistance
 Conductor – substance with low electrical resistance

Principles of Electricity
 Ohm’s law: gives relationship of voltage, current,
resistance
Current (I)  voltage (V)/resistance (R)
 Current is directly proportional to voltage
 Greater the voltage (potential difference), greater the
current
 No net current flow between points with same
potential
 Current is inversely proportional to resistance
 The greater the resistance, the smaller the current
Electrical Current and the Body
 Reflects the flow of __________ rather than electrons
 There is a potential on either side of membranes when:
 The number of ions is different across the

membrane
 The membrane provides a resistance to ion flow

Role of Ion Channels
 Types of plasma membrane ion channels:
 Passive, or leakage, channels –
 Chemically (ligand) gated channels – open with
binding of a specific ____________________
 Voltage-gated channels – open and close in
response to membrane potential
 Mechanically gated channels – open and close in
response to physical deformation of receptors

Gated Channels
 When gated channels are open:
 Ions move quickly across the membrane
 Movement is along their

___________________________
 An electrical current is created
 Voltage changes across the membrane

Operation of a Chemically Gated Channel
 Example: Na+-K+ gated channel
 Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the

extracellular receptor
 Na+ cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the

cell
 Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the

receptor
 Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell

Operation of a Voltage-Gated Channel
 Example: Na+ channel
 Closed when the intracellular environment is negative
 Na+ cannot enter the cell
 Open when the intracellular environment is positive
 Na+ can enter the cell

Chemically gated ion channels Voltage-gated ion channels
Open in response to binding of the Open in response to changes
appropriate neurotransmitter in membrane potential
Receptor Neurotransmitter chemical

attached to receptor
Membrane
Chemical voltage
binds changes
Closed Open Closed Open

Electrochemical Gradient
 Ions flow along their electrical gradient when they
move toward an area of opposite charge
 Ions flow along their chemical gradient when they

move from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration
 Electrochemical gradient –

Resting Membrane Potential (Vr)
 The potential difference (–70 mV) across the
membrane of a resting neuron
 The inside side of membrane is negatively charged
relative to the outside
 Generated by:
 Differences in ionic makeup of ICF and ECF
 Differential permeability of the plasma membrane
 It is generated by different concentrations of Na+,
K+, Cl, and protein anions (A)
Voltmeter
Plasma Ground electrode

membrane outside cell
Microelectrode
inside cell
Axon
Neuron

Resting Membrane Potential
 Differences in ionic makeup
 ECF has higher concentration of Na+ than ICF
 Balanced chiefly by chloride ions (Cl-)
 ICF has higher concentration of K+ than ECF
 Balanced by negatively charged proteins (A–)
 K+ plays most important role in membrane
potential

 Differential permeability of membrane
 Impermeable to A–
 Slightly permeable to Na+ (through leakage

channels)
 25 times more permeable to K+ (more leakage

channels)

 Negative interior of the cell is due to much greater

diffusion of K+ out of the cell than Na+ diffusion into
the cell
 Sodium-potassium pump stabilizes the resting

membrane potential by maintaining the concentration
gradients for Na+ and K+

Membrane Potential Changes
 Membrane potential changes when

 Concentrations of ions across membrane change
 Membrane permeability to ions changes
 Changes produce two types signals
 Graded potentials
 Incoming signals operating over short distances
 Action potentials
 Long-distance signals of axons
 Changes in membrane potential used as signals to
receive, integrate, and send information
Changes in Membrane Potential
 Changes are caused by three events
 Depolarization – the inside of the membrane
becomes ______________ negative
 Repolarization – the membrane returns to its
resting membrane potential
 Hyperpolarization – the inside of the membrane
becomes _____________ negative than the resting
potential

Graded Potentials (GP)
 Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential
 Decrease in intensity with distance
 Magnitude varies directly with the strength of the
stimulus
 Stronger stimulus more voltage changes; farther
current flows
 Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate action
potentials
 Only travel over short distances
 Dendrites and cell bodies
Graded Potentials
 Depolarization
 A shift in membrane potential toward 0 mV
 Movement of Na+ through channel
 Produces local current
 Depolarizes nearby plasma membrane (graded
potential)
 Change in potential is proportional to stimulus

Stimulus
Depolarized region
Plasma
membrane
(a) Depolarization: A small patch of the

membrane (red area) has become depolarized.

Depolarization spreads: Opposite charges attract each other.
This creates local currents (black arrows) that depolarize
adjacent membrane areas, spreading the wave of depolarization.

Graded Potentials
1 Stimulation
Membrane exposed to chemical that opens the sodium ion channels
Stimulus + + –65 mV
applied + + + + + +
here + + + + + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +
– – – – – – –
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +

Graded Potentials
2 Graded Potential
Spread of sodium ions inside plasma membrane produces a local
current that depolarized adjacent portions of the plasma membrane
+ + + +
Local + + + + + –60 mV + + –65 mV + + –70 mV
current + + +
+ + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
– + – – – – – – – – –
+ ++ + – – – –
– + + + + + + + + – –
– + + + + + + +
+ –
+ Local current

Membrane potential (mV)
Active area
(site of initial
depolarization)
–70
Resting potential
Distance (a few mm)

(c) Decay of membrane potential with distance: Because current
is lost through the “leaky” plasma membrane, the voltage declines
with distance from the stimulus (the voltage is decremental ).
Consequently, graded potentials are short-distance signals.

Graded Potentials
 Repolarization
 When the stimulus is removed, membrane potential
returns to normal
 Hyperpolarization
 Increasing the negativity of the resting potential
 Result of opening a potassium channel
 Opposite effect of opening a sodium channel
 Positive ions move out, not into cell

Depolarization and Hyperpolarization of
the Membrane

Depolarization, Repolarization, and Hyperpolarization.
Chemical
stimulus
Chemical removed Chemical Chemical
stimulus stimulus stimulus
–60 applied Repolarization applied removed
Membrane
potential (mV) –70
Depolarization
–80
Hyperpolarization Return to resting
membrane potential
Time

Action Potentials (AP)
 A brief reversal of membrane potential
 Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells

and neurons
 They do not decrease in strength over distance
 They are the principal means of neural communication
 An action potential in the axon of a neuron is a nerve

impulse
 All or none event

Action Potential: Resting State
 Na+ and K+ channels are closed
 Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+
 Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates
 Activation gates –
closed in the resting
state
 Inactivation gates –
open in the resting
state

Action Potential: Depolarization Phase
 Na+ permeability increases; membrane potential
reverses
 Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed
 Threshold – a critical level of depolarization (–55 mV)
 At threshold, depolarization
becomes self-generating
 Membrane potential rises to
+30mv

Threshold
 Not all depolarization events produce APs
 For axon to "fire", depolarization must reach threshold
 The voltage at which the AP is triggered
 At threshold:
 Membrane has been depolarized by 15 to 20 mV
 Na+ permeability increases
 Na influx exceeds K+ efflux
 The positive feedback cycle begins

Action Potential: Repolarization Phase
 Sodium inactivation gates close
 Membrane permeability to Na+ declines to resting
levels
 As sodium gates close, voltage-sensitive K+ gates open
 K+ exits the cell and internal negativity of the resting
neuron
is restored
 Drops back down
towards -70 mV

Action Potential: Hyperpolarization
 Potassium gates remain open, causing an excessive
efflux of K+
 This efflux causes hyperpolarization of the membrane
 Drops below -70 mV
 Flow of ions through
leakage channels restores
resting membrane potential

Figure 11.11 The action potential (AP) is a brief change in membrane potential in a “patch” of
membrane that is depolarized by local currents. (1 of 3)
1 Resting state. No 2 Depolarization 3 Repolarization is

ions move through is caused by Na+ caused by K+ flowing
voltage-gated flowing into the cell. out of the cell.
channels.
Membrane potential (mV)
+30
3
0 4 Hyperpolarization is
2 Action caused by K+ continuing to

potential leave the cell.
–55 Threshold
–70 1 1
4
0 1 2 3 4
Time (ms)

The events
Each step corresponds to
one part of the AP graph.
Na+ 1
Sodium Potassium
channel channel
Activation
gates
Inactivation
gate K+
1 Resting state: All gated Na+ and K+

channels are closed.
4
Na+ Na+
K+ K+
4 Hyperpolarization: Some K+ channels 2 Depolarization: Na+ channels open, allowing

remain open, and Na+ channels reset. Na+ entry.
3
Na+
K+
3 Repolarization: Na+ channels are inactivating.

K+ channels open, allowing K+ to exit.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
 Repolarization
 Restores the resting electrical conditions of the

neuron
 Does not restore the resting ionic conditions
 Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is

restored by the ____________________________

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe the phases of an action potential.

Absolute Refractory Period
 Depolarization into mid-repolarization
 The absolute refractory period:
 Prevents the neuron from generating another action
potential
 Ensures that each action potential is separate

Relative Refractory Period
 Mid-repolarization into hyperpolazation
 Second action potential possible with larger-than-
normal stimulus

Absolute refractory Relative refractory
period period
Depolarization
(Na+ enters)
Repolarization
(K+ leaves)
After-hyperpolarization
Stimulus
Time (ms)
Learning Targets
 I can:
 Compare and contrast absolute refractory period

and relative refractory period.

Graded Potentials Action Potentials
Comparing Electrical
cell body & dendrites
Signals
axon hillock & axon
chemical & mechanical voltage gated Na+ and K+
gates longer propagation
shorter propagation all-or-none amplitude
variable amplitude shorter lasting than GP
longer lasting than AP has refractory period
no refractory period

Propagation of an Action Potential
 Propagation allows AP to be transmitted from
origin down entire axon length toward terminals
 Na+ influx through voltage gates in one membrane
area cause local currents that cause opening of Na+
voltage gates in adjacent membrane areas
 Leads to depolarization of that area, which in turn
causes depolarization in next area

Conduction Velocities of Axons
 Conduction velocities vary widely among neurons
 Rate of impulse propagation is determined by:
 Axon diameter – the larger the diameter, the

__________________ the impulse
 Presence of a myelin sheath – myelination

dramatically __________________ impulse speed

Continuous Conduction
 ____________________ axon
 Impulse continues smoothly down the axon

1 As an action potential develops at the Action

Extracellular Fluid
initial segment 1 , the membrane potential +30 mV + –70 mV + –70 mV

potential at this site depolarizes to +
+ + +
+30 mV.
+ + + + + +
1 2 3
+ – – – – – –
+
+ + ++ + Cell membrane Cytosol

2 As the sodium ions entering at 1 spread Graded depolarization

away from the open voltage-gated –60 mV + –70 mV
+
channels, a graded depolarization quickly + + + + +
brings the membrane in segment 2 to + + + + + + +
threshold. 1 2 3
+ + + + – +
– – – – – – – –
+ + +

3 An action potential now occurs in

segment 2 while segment 1 begins Repolarization
repolarization. (refractory) +30 mV + + –70 mV
+ + Na+ + +
+ + + + +
1 2 3
– – + + + + – – – – – –
+
+ + + + +

Saltatory Conduction
 Current passes through a _______________ axon only

at the myelin sheath gaps
 Voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated at these

nodes
 Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and

jump from one node to the next
 Much faster than continuous conduction

Saltatory Conduction

1 + +
Extracellular Fluid
An action potential +30 mV + + + + –70 mV + + + –70 mV + ++ +
has occurred at the
+ + + +
initial segment 1 . + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ Na+
Myelinated + Myelinated + Myelinated
1 internode 2 internode 3 internode
+ + ++ – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ + + Plasma membrane Cytosol

2
A local current + + + + + –60 mV + + +
+ –70 mV +
+
+
produces a graded
+ + + + +
depolarization
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
that brings the +
axolemma at the
+ + +
next node to the 1 2 3
Local – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
threshold. + + +
+ + + current + – +–
+ + +

3 Repolarization
+ +
An action (refractory) + + + + + + –70 mV
+ +
+30 mV
potential develops + + +
+ +
at node 2 . + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Na+ +
+ + +
1 2 3
– – – – + + – – – – – – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + ++
+

4 + + + + +
A local current + + + –60 mV
+ + + + + +
produces a graded + +
depolarization + + + + + +
+
+ + + + + +
that brings the + + +
+
axolemma at
1 2 3
node 3 to – – – – – – – – + Local + – – – – – – – –
threshold. + + ++ + current +
+ + +

Stimulus Size of voltage
(a) In a bare plasma membrane (without voltage-gated

channels), as on a dendrite, voltage decays because
current leaks across the membrane.
Stimulus Voltage-gated
ion channel
(b) In an unmyelinated axon, voltage-gated Na+ and K+

channels regenerate the action potential at each point
along the axon, so voltage does not decay. Conduction
is slow because movements of ions and of the gates
of channel proteins take time and must occur before
voltage regeneration occurs.
Stimulus
Node of Ranvier
Myelin 1 mm
sheath
(c) In a myelinated axon, myelin keeps current in axons Myelin sheath

(voltage doesn’t decay much). APs are generated only
in the nodes of Ranvier and appear to jump rapidly
from node to node.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
 Autoimmune disease affecting primarily young adults
 Myelin sheaths in CNS destroyed
 Immune system attacks myelin
 Turns it to hardened lesions called scleroses
 Impulse conduction slows and eventually ceases
because there are too few Na+ channels between the
myelin sheath gaps
 Unaffected axons increase Na+ channels
 Causes cycles of relapse and remission
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
 Symptoms
 Visual disturbances, weakness, loss of muscular
control, speech disturbances, and urinary
incontinence
 Treatment
 Drugs that modify immune system's activity
improve lives
 Prevention?
 High blood levels of Vitamin D reduce risk of
development

Axon Diameter and Speed
 Three Groups of Axons
1. Type A fibers
2. Type B fibers
3. Type C fibers
 These groups are classified by:
 Diameter
 Myelination
 Speed of action potentials

 Type A Fibers
 Myelinated
 Large diameter
 High speed (150 m/sec or 300 mph)
 Carry rapid information to/from CNS
 For example, position, balance, touch, and motor
impulses

 Type B Fibers
 Myelinated
 Medium diameter
 Medium speed (15 m/sec or 30 mph)
 Carry intermediate signals
 For example, sensory information, peripheral
effectors

 Type C Fibers
 Unmyelinated
 Small diameter
 Slow speed (1 m/sec or 2 mph)
 Carry slower information
 For example, involuntary muscle, gland controls

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe how an AP is propagated down a neuron.

Synapses
 A junction that mediates information transfer from one
neuron:
 To another neuron
 To an effector cell
 Presynaptic neuron – conducts impulses
____________ the synapse
 Postsynaptic neuron – transmits impulses
_____________ from the synapse

Synapses
 Synaptic connections
 Axodendritic: between axon terminals of one
neuron and dendrites of others
 Axosomatic: between axon terminals of one
neuron and soma (cell body) of others
 Less common and understood connections:
 Axoaxonal (axon to axon)
 Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite)
 Somatodendritic (dendrite to soma)

Axodendritic
synapses
Dendrites
Axosomatic
synapses Cell body
Axoaxonic synapses
(a)
Axon
Axon
Axosomatic
synapses
Cell body (soma) of

(b) postsynaptic neuron
Figure 11.16
Synapses
 Two main types of synapses:

 Chemical synapse
 Electrical synapse

Chemical Synapses
 Indirect communication between cells
 Cell membranes separated by synaptic cleft between
Presynaptic end bulb and postsynaptic cell membrane
 _______________________ released into cleft
 Post synaptic cell responds with type of chemically-
gated graded potential called postsynaptic potential

Neurotransmitters
 Chemicals used for neuronal communication with
the body and the brain
 100 different neurotransmitters have been

identified
 Acetylcholine is most studied and understood

Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer
1. Nerve impulses reach the axonal terminal of the
presynaptic neuron and open Ca2+ channels
2. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
via exocytosis
3. Neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft by
diffusion and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron
4. Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes,
causing an excitatory or inhibitory effect

Presynaptic
neuron
Presynaptic
neuron
Postsynaptic
neuron
1 Action potential
arrives at axon
terminal.
2 Voltage-gated Ca2+
Mitochondrion
channels open and Ca2+
enters the axon terminal.
3 Ca2+ entry Synaptic

causes synaptic cleft
vesicles to release Axon
neurotransmitter terminal
Synaptic
by exocytosis vesicles
4 Neurotransmitter diffuses
across the synaptic cleft and Postsynaptic
binds to specific receptors on neuron
the postsynaptic membrane.

Ion movement
Graded potential
5 Binding of neurotransmitter opens

ion channels, resulting in graded
potentials.
Termination of Neurotransmitter Effects
 Neurotransmitter bound to a postsynaptic neuron:
 Produces a continuous postsynaptic effect
 Blocks reception of additional “messages”
 Must be removed from its receptor

Termination of Neurotransmitter Effects
 Removal of neurotransmitters occurs when they:
 Are degraded by enzymes
 Are reabsorbed by astrocytes or the presynaptic

terminals
 Diffuse from the synaptic cleft

Chemical synapses transmit signals from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters.
Enzymatic
degradation
Reuptake
Diffusion away
from synapse
6 Neurotransmitter effects are

terminated by reuptake through
transport proteins, enzymatic
degradation, or diffusion away
from the synapse.
Chemical synapses transmit signals from one neuron to another using neurotransmitters.
Presynaptic
neuron
Presynaptic
neuron
Postsynaptic
neuron
1 Action potential
arrives at axon
terminal.
2 Voltage-gated Ca2+
Mitochondrion
channels open and Ca2+
enters the axon terminal.
3 Ca2+ entry Synaptic

causes synaptic cleft
vesicles to release Axon
neurotransmitter terminal
Synaptic
by exocytosis vesicles
4 Neurotransmitter diffuses
across the synaptic cleft and Postsynaptic
binds to specific receptors on neuron
the postsynaptic membrane.
Ion movement
Enzymatic
Graded potential degradation
Reuptake
Diffusion away
from synapse
5 Binding of neurotransmitter opens
ion channels, resulting in graded
potentials.
6 Neurotransmitter effects are

terminated by reuptake through
transport proteins, enzymatic
degradation, or diffusion away
from the synapse.

Electrical Synapses
 Less common than chemical synapses
 Neurons are electrically coupled
 Joined by gap junctions that connect cytoplasm of
adjacent neurons
 Communication is very rapid and may be
unidirectional or bidirectional
 Found in some brain regions responsible for eye
movements or hippocampus in areas involved in
emotions and memory
 Most abundant in embryonic nervous tissue

Information Processing
 Information Processing
 At the simplest level (individual neurons)
 Many dendrites receive neurotransmitter
messages simultaneously
 Some excitatory, some inhibitory
 Net effect on axon hillock determines if action
potential is produced

 Postsynaptic Potentials
 Graded potentials developed in a postsynaptic cell
 In response to neurotransmitters
 Two Types of Postsynaptic Potentials

1. Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
 Graded depolarization of postsynaptic
membrane
2. Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
 Graded hyperpolarization of postsynaptic
membrane

 Inhibition
 A neuron that receives many IPSPs:
 Is inhibited from producing an action potential
 Because the stimulation needed to reach
threshold is increased

 Summation
 To trigger an action potential:
 One EPSP is not enough
 EPSPs (and IPSPs) combine through summation
1. Temporal summation
2. Spatial summation

 Temporal Summation
 Multiple times
 Rapid, repeated stimuli at one synapse
 Spatial Summation
 Multiple locations
 Many stimuli, arrive at multiple synapses

Temporal and Spatial Summation.
1 First stimulus arrives 2 Second stimulus arrives and is 3 Action potential is generated
added to the first stimulus
ACTION
FIRST SECOND POTENTIAL
STIMULUS STIMULUS PROPAGATION
Initial Threshold
segment reached
a Temporal Summation. Temporal summation occurs on a membrane that receives two depolarizing
stimuli from the same source in rapid succession. The effects of the second stimulus are added to those
on the first.

Temporal and Spatial Summation.
1 Two stimuli arrive simultaneously

2
Action potential is generated
TWO
ACTION
SIMULTANEOUS
POTENTIAL
STIMULI
PROPAGATION
Threshold
reached
b Spatial Summation. Spatial summation occurs when sources of stimulation

arrive simultaneously, but at different locations. Local currents spread the
depolarizing effects, and areas of overlap experience the combined effects.

Learning Targets
 I can:
 Describe the events at a chemical synapse.

Chapter 11 A

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Chapter 11 A

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Fundamentals of the Nervous

System and Nervous Tissue

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 ______________________– monitoring stimuli -

 ______________________– response to stimuli -

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Interprets sensory input and dictates motor output

 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Sensory afferent fibers – carry impulses from skin,

 Visceral afferent fibers – transmit impulses from

 Motor (efferent) division

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Conscious control of skeletal muscles

 Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

 Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and

 Divisions – sympathetic and parasympathetic

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division

Somatic sensory Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

Sympathetic division Parasympathetic

Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 ___________________ – excitable cells that

 _______________________________ – cells that

 Highly cellular; little extracellular space

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons

 Segregate and insulate neurons

 Guide young neurons to the proper connections

 Promote health and growth

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) Astrocytes are the most abundant

 Ependymal cells – range in shape from squamous to

 They line the central cavities of the brain and

 Assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(b) Microglial cells are defensive cells in

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Schwann cells (PNS) – surround fibers of the PNS and

 Satellite cells (PNS) surround neuron cell bodies

 Regulate O2, CO2, nutrient, and neurotransmitter

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(e) Satellite cells and Schwann cells (which

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Describe the variety of neuroglia cells.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Composed of a body, axon and dendrites

 Their plasma membrane function in:

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Contains the nucleus with a nucleolus and many

 Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER)

 Contains an axon hillock – cone-shaped area from

 In most, plasma membrane is part of receptive region

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Most neuron cell bodies are located in CNS