ROUTING

INTERNET ROUTING PROTOCOL

INTERNET ROUTING PROTOCOLS CLASSIFICATION
INTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (IGP)
• IS A ROUTING PROTOCOL WHICH IS USED TO FIND NETWORK PATH INFORMATION
WITHIN AN AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM
• AN AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM (AS) IS A GROUP OF NETWORKS UNDER A SINGLE
ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL WHICH COULD BE AN INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER
(ISP) OR A LARGE ENTERPRISE ORGANIZATION

EXTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (EGP)

• IS A ROUTING PROTOCOL WHICH IS USED TO FIND NETWORK PATH INFORMATION
BETWEEN DIFFERENT AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS
 IGP AND EGP
IGP DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOL (DVRP)
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOLS (RIP)
INTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (IGRP)
ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL(EIGRP)
LINK STATE ROUTING PROTOCOL (LSRP)
OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF)
INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM-TO-INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM (IS-IS)

EGP BORDER GATEWAY PROTOCOL (BGP)

ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)
• USES HOP COUNT AS ITS METRIC AND DISTANCE VECTOR ALGORITHM TO DECIDE THE
PATH
• EACH RIP ROUTER MAINTAINS A ROUTING TABLE
• EACH ROUTER BROADCASTS ITS ENTIRE ROUTING TABLE TO ITS CLOSEST NEIGHBORS
EVERY 30 SECONDS
• NEIGHBOURS ARE THE OTHER ROUTERS TO WHICH A ROUTER IS CONNECTED DIRECTLY
• THE NEIGHBORS, IN TURN, PASS THE INFORMATION ON TO THEIR NEAREST
NEIGHBORS, AND SO ON, UNTIL ALL ROUTERS WITHIN THE NETWORK HAVE THE SAME
KNOWLEDGE OF ROUTING PATHS
• THIS SHARED KNOWLEDGE IS KNOWN AS CONVERGENCE.
• RIP ALLOWS ONLY 15 HOPS IN A PATH. IF A PACKET CAN'T REACH A DESTINATION IN 15
HOPS, THE DESTINATION IS CONSIDERED UNREACHABLE

Sumber : https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com
RIP ROUTE UPDATING
• IF A ROUTER RECEIVES AN UPDATE ON A ROUTE,
• If it is shorter, it will update its table entry with the length and next-hop address
of the shorter path
• If it is longer, it will wait through a "hold-down" period to see if later updates
reflect the higher value as well. It will only update the table entry if the new,
longer path has been determined to be stable

• IF A GIVEN ROUTE IN THE ROUTING TABLE ISN'T UPDATED

• It may be due to a router crashes or a network connection is severed,
• If it is not updated across six successive cycles (that is, for 180 seconds) a router
will BE MARKED AS UNUSED
• If there is still no update after 240 seconds, the device removes all routing table
entries for the non-updating device.

Sumber : https://searchnetworking.techtarget.com ; cisco.com

RIP PATH SWITCHING
• IF ROUTER TWO INTENDS TO SEND PACKET TO NETWORK A
• through router one is 3 hops, through router three is 2 hops
• router two chooses router one and discards the information
through router three
• IF THE PATH BETWEEN ROUTER ONE AND NETWORK A GOES
DOWN, ROUTER TWO LOSES ALL CONNECTIVITY WITH THIS
DESTINATION UNTIL IT TIMES OUT THE ROUTE OF ITS
ROUTING TABLE (THREE UPDATE PERIODS, OR 90 SECONDS)
• ROUTER THREE RE-ADVERTISES THE ROUTE EVERY 30 SECONDS
• IT WILL TAKE BETWEEN 90 AND 120 SECONDS FOR ROUTER TWO TO SWITCH THE PATH FROM
ROUTER ONE TO ROUTER THREE.

Sumber : https://www.cisco.com
INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL
(IGRP)
• INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL (IGRP) IS CREATED BY CISCO
• TO RESPONSE THE LIMITATION HOP IN RIP (MAXIMUM HOP COUNT OF 15)
INTO MAXIMUM HOP COUNT OF UP TO 255
• IGRP SENDS A NOTIFICATION OF ANY NEW CHANGES, AND INFORMATION
ABOUT ITS STATUS, TO ITS NEIGHBORS EVERY 90 SECONDS
• IGRP MANAGES A ROUTING TABLE WITH THE MOST OPTIMAL PATH BASED
ON SEVERAL PARAMETERS

Sumber: technopedia.com
 IGRP PATH PARAMETERS
• THESE PARAMETERS INCLUDE
• TOPOLOGICAL DELAY TIME
• THE NARROWEST BANDWIDTH SEGMENT OF THE PATH
• CHANNEL OCCUPANCY OF THE PATH
• RELIABILITY OF THE PATH
• TWO ADDITION PIECES OF INFORMATION ARE PASSED WITH PARAMETERS:
HOP COUNT AND MTU (MAXIMUM TRANSMISSION UNIT), THE MAXIMUM
PACKET SIZE CAN BE SENT ALONG ENTIRE PATH WITHOUT FRAGMENTATION
• A CALCULATION IS PROVIDED TO COMBINES THE EFFECT OF THE VARIOUS
METRIC COMPONENTS INTO A SINGLE NUMBER REPRESENTING THE
"GOODNESS" OF THAT PATH

Sumber: technopedia.com ; cisco.com

 IGRP WORK
EXAMPLE
• WHEN A GATEWAY IS FIRST TURNED ON, ITS ROUTING TABLE IS INITIALIZED,
• This may be done by an operator from a console terminal,
• by reading information from configuration files.
• A description of each network connection to the gateway is provided, including the topological delay and the
bandwidth of the link.
• ALL THE GATEWAYS ARE PROGRAMMED TO PERIODICALLY TRANSMIT TO THEIR NEIGHBORING GATEWAYS
THE INFORMATION THAT THEY HAVE BEEN INITIALIZED WITH, AS WELL AS INFORMATION GATHERED FROM
OTHER GATEWAYS.
• THUS, GATEWAY S WOULD RECEIVE UPDATES FROM GATEWAYS R AND T, AND LEARN THAT IT CAN REACH
NETWORK 128.6.5.0 THROUGH GATEWAY R AND COMPUTER B THROUGH GATEWAY T.
• SINCE GATEWAY S SENDS ITS ENTIRE ROUTING TABLE, IN THE NEXT CYCLE GATEWAY T WILL LEARN THAT IT
CAN GET TO NETWORK 128.6.5.0 THROUGH GATEWAY S

Sumber: cisco.com
 ENHANCEDINTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING
PROTOCOL (EIGRP)
• RIP UTILIZES PERIODIC UPDATES TO RE-CONVERGE, AND
DISCARDS UNUSED ROUTE.
• EIGRP BUILDS A TOPOLOGY TABLE FROM EACH OF ITS
NEIGHBOR'S ADVERTISEMENTS, AND CONVERGES BY
LOOKING FOR A LIKELY LOOP-FREE ROUTE IN THE
TOPOLOGY TABLE, OR NO OTHER ROUTE
• ROUTER TWO SAVES THE INFORMATION IT RECEIVED
FROM BOTH ROUTERS ONE AND THREE
• IT CHOOSES THE PATH THROUGH ONE AS ITS BEST PATH
AND THE PATH THROUGH THREE AS A LOOP-FREE PATH (A
FEASIBLE SUCCESSOR)
• WHEN THE PATH THROUGH ROUTER ONE BECOMES
UNAVAILABLE, ROUTER TWO EXAMINES ITS TOPOLOGY
TABLE AND, FINDING A FEASIBLE SUCCESSOR, BEGINS
USING THE PATH THROUGH THREE IMMEDIATELY

Sumber: cisco.com
 ROUTING LOOP
• A ROUTING LOOP IS WHEN A DATA PACKET IS CONTINUALLY ROUTED THROUGH THE SAME ROUTERS OVER AND OVER IN AN
ENDLESS CIRCLE.
• A ROUTING LOOP CAN HAVE A CATASTROPHIC IMPACT ON A NETWORK, AND IN SOME CASES, COMPLETELY DISABLING THE
NETWORK.
• NORMALLY ROUTING LOOP IS A PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH DISTANCE VECTOR PROTOCOLS.
• ROUTING LOOP CAN HAPPEN IN LARGE INTERNETWORKS WHEN A SECOND TOPOLOGY CHANGE EMERGES BEFORE THE
NETWORK IS ABLE TO CONVERGE ON THE FIRST CHANGE.
• CONVERGENCE IS THE TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THE CONDITION WHEN ALL ROUTERS IN AN INTERNETWORK HAVE AGREED ON A
COMMON TOPOLOGY.
• LINK STATE PROTOCOLS TEND TO CONVERGE VERY QUICKLY, WHILE DISTANCE VECTOR PROTOCOLS TEND TO CONVERGE SLOWLY.
• METHODS ARE USED TO AVOID ROUTING LOOPS INCLUDE
• Maximum hop count mechanism
• A split horizon is a routing configuration that stops a route from being advertised back in the direction from which it came.
• Route Poisoning. When a router detects that one of its connected routes has failed, the router will poison the route by assigning an
infinite metric to it.
• Hold-down timer prevent bsad routes from being restored and propagated by mistake. When a route is placed in a hold-down state,
routers will neither advertise the route nor accept advertisements about it for a specific interval called the hold-down period.
EIGRP
ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL (EIGRP) IS A CISCO
PROPRIETARY
EIGRP IS BASED ON IGRP, HENCE THE CONFIGURATION IS SIMILAR.
ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING PROTOCOL (EIGRP) IS CONSIDERED AS A
HYBRID ROUTING PROTOCOL BECAUSE EIGRP HAS CHARACTERISTICS OF BOTH
DISTANCE VECTOR AND LINK STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS.
BOTH EIGRP AND IGRP OFFER LOAD BALANCING ACROSS SIX PATHS (EQUAL OR
UNEQUAL), AND THEY HAVE SIMILAR METRIC STRUCTURES.
EIGRP HAS FASTER CONVERGENCE, AND HAS LESS NETWORK OVERHEAD, SINCE IT
USES INCREMENTAL UPDATES.
ANOTHER IMPORTANT FEATURES OF ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY ROUTING
PROTOCOL (EIGRP) ARE ROUTING LOOP-FREE TOPOLOGY

Sumber: cisco.com
TERMS RELATED TO EIRGP
• DUAL stands for Diffused Update Algorithm, the algorithm used by Enhanced Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) to calculate the shortest path.
• NEIGHBOR TABLE contains a list of the EIGRP neighbours. Each routed protocol for EIGRP
has its own neighbour table.
• TOPOLOGY TABLE contains a list of all destinations and paths the EIGRP router learned.
There is a separate topology table for each routed protocol.
• SUCCESSOR is the best path to reach a destination within the topology table.
• FEASIBLE SUCCESSOR is the best backup path to reach a destination
• ROUTING TABLE contains all of the successor routes from the topology table. There is a
separate routing table for each routed protocol.
• is the distance (metric) that a neighbouring router is advertising for a specific route.
ADVERTISED DISTANCE
• FEASIBLE DISTANCE is the distance (metric) that your router will use to reach a specific
route.
EIGRP
• TO DISTRIBUTE ROUTING INFORMATION THROUGHOUT A NETWORK, EIGRP USES
NON-PERIODIC INCREMENTAL ROUTING UPDATES (EIGRP ONLY SENDS ROUTING
UPDATES ABOUT PATHS THAT HAVE CHANGED )
• THE BASIC PROBLEM WITH SENDING ONLY ROUTING UPDATES IS THAT ROUTER
MAY NOT KNOW WHEN A PATH THROUGH A NEIGHBORING ROUTER IS NO LONGER
AVAILABLE.
• ROUTER CAN NOT TIME OUT ROUTES, EXPECTING TO RECEIVE A NEW ROUTING
TABLE FROM YOUR NEIGHBORS
• EIGRP RELIES ON NEIGHBOR RELATIONSHIPS TO RELIABLY PROPAGATE ROUTING
TABLE CHANGES THROUGHOUT THE NETWORK
• TWO ROUTERS BECOME NEIGHBORS WHEN THEY SEE EACH OTHER'S HELLO
PACKETS ON A COMMON NETWORK

Sumber: cisco.com
EIGRP NEIGHBOR DISCOVERY AND MAINTENANCE
• EIGRP SENDS HELLO PACKETS EVERY 5 SECONDS ON HIGH BANDWIDTH LINKS AND EVERY
60 SECONDS ON LOW BANDWIDTH MULTIPOINT LINKS.
• 5-SECOND HELLO:
• broadcast media, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI
• point-to-point serial links, such as PPP or HDLC leased circuits, Frame Relay point-to-
point subinterfaces, and ATM point-to-point subinterface
• high bandwidth (greater than T1) multipoint circuits, such as ISDN PRI and Frame
Relay
• 60-SECOND HELLO:
• multipoint circuits T1 bandwidth or slower, such as Frame Relay multipoint interfaces,
ATM multipoint interfaces, ATM switched virtual circuits, and ISDN BRIs
• THE RATE AT WHICH EIGRP SENDS HELLO PACKETS IS CALLED THE HELLO INTERVAL, AND
CAN BE ADJUSTED

Sumber: cisco.com
EIGRP TOPOLOGY TABLE
THE TOPOLOGY TABLE CONTAINS THE INFORMATION NEEDED TO BUILD A SET OF
DISTANCES AND VECTORS TO EACH REACHABLE NETWORK, INCLUDING:
• lowest bandwidth on the path to this destination as reported by the upstream
neighbor
• total delay
• path reliability
• path loading
• minimum path maximum transmission unit (MTU)
• feasible distance
• reported distance
• route source (external routes are marked)

Sumber: cisco.com
LINK STATE ROUTING
• LINK STATE ROUTING PROTOCOL MAINTAINS COMPLETE ROAD MAP OF THE NETWORK IN
EACH ROUTER
• EACH ROUTER ORIGINATES INFORMATION ABOUT THE ROUTER, ITS CONNECTED LINKS, AND
THE STATE OF THOSE LINKS.
• THIS INFORMATION IS SENT TO ALL THE ROUTERS IN THE NETWORK AS MULTICAST
MESSAGES.
• AFTER OBTAINING THE COMPLETE PICTURE OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY, EACH ROUTER WILL
INDEPENDENTLY CALCULATE ITS OWN BEST PATHS TO REACH THE DESTINATION NETWORKS.
• LINK-STATE ROUTING ALWAYS TRY TO MAINTAIN FULL NETWORKS TOPOLOGY BY UPDATING
ITSELF WHENEVER A CHANGE HAPPEN IN NETWORK.
• WHENEVER A LINK'S STATE CHANGES, A LINK-STATE ADVERTISEMENT (LSA) IS EXCHANGED
BETWEEN ROUTERS.
• WHEN A ROUTER RECEIVES AN LSA ROUTING UPDATE, THE LINK-STATE ALGORITHM IS USED
TO RECALCULATE THE SHORTEST PATH TO AFFECTED DESTINATIONS.
 LINK STATE ROUTING
• LINK-STATE ADVERTISEMENT (LSA) – A LINK-STATE ADVERTISEMENT (LSA) IS A SMALL
PACKET OF ROUTING INFORMATION THAT IS SENT BETWEEN ROUTERS.
• TOPOLOGICAL DATABASE – A TOPOLOGICAL DATABASE IS A COLLECTION OF
INFORMATION GATHERED FROM LSAS.
• LINK STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS CONVERGE MORE QUICKLY AND THEY ARE LESS
PRONE TO ROUTING LOOPS THAN DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOLS
(ADVANTAGE)
• LINK STATE ROUTING PROTOCOLS REQUIRE MORE CPU POWER AND MEMORY THAN
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING PROTOCOL ALGORITHMS (DISADVANTAGE)
• LINK STATE PROTOCOLS USE A HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE THAT LIMITS THE DISTANCE
THAT A LINK-STATE ADVERTISEMENT (LSA) NEED TO TRAVEL.
• LINK-STATE ALGORITHMS CAN BE MORE COMPLEX AND EXPENSIVE TO IMPLEMENT
AND SUPPORT.
 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF) AREA
• OSPF OPERATES WITHIN A SINGLE AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM (AS)
• NETWORKS WITHIN THE SINGLE AS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO A NUMBER OF AREA
• BY DEFAULT, AREA 0 IS CREATED. AREA 0 CAN EITHER FUNCTION ALONE OR
ACT AS THE OSPF BACKBONE FOR A LARGER NUMBER OF AREAS
• EACH OSPF AREA IS NAMED USING A 32-BIT IDENTIFIER WHICH IN MOST
CASES IS WRITTEN IN THE SAME DOTTED-DECIMAL NOTATION AS AN IP4
ADDRESS. FOR EXAMPLE, AREA 0 IS USUALLY WRITTEN AS 0.0.0.0
• THE TOPOLOGY OF AN AREA IS MAINTAINED IN ITS OWN LINK STATE DATABASE
AND IS HIDDEN FROM OTHER AREAS, WHICH REDUCES THE AMOUNT OF
TRAFFIC ROUTING REQUIRED BY OSPF
• THE TOPOLOGY IS THEN SHARED IN A SUMMARIZED FORM BETWEEN AREAS
BY A CONNECTING ROUTER
 OSPF ADVANTAGES
• OSPF USES IP MULTICAST TO SEND LINK-STATE UPDATES
• UPDATES ARE ONLY SENT IN CASE ROUTING CHANGES OCCUR INSTEAD OF
PERIODICALLY (BETTER USE OF BANDWIDTH)
• OSPF HAS BETTER CONVERGENCE THAN RIP BECAUSE ROUTING CHANGES
ARE PROPAGATED INSTANTANEOUSLY AND NOT PERIODICALLY
• OSPF ALLOWS FOR THE TRANSFER AND TAGGING OF EXTERNAL ROUTES
INJECTED INTO AN AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM
• THIS KEEPS TRACK OF EXTERNAL ROUTES INJECTED BY EXTERIOR PROTOCOLS
SUCH AS BGP.
OSPF ALGORITHM
• Upon initialization or due to any change in routing information, a
router generates a link-state advertisement (LSA) representing the
collection of all link-states on that router.
• All routers exchange link-states by means of flooding
• Each router that receives a link-state update should store a copy in
its link-state database and then propagate the update to other
routers.
• After the database of each router is completed, the router
calculates a Shortest Path Tree to all destinations.
• The router uses the Djikstra algorithm in order to calculate the
shortest path tree.
• The IP routing table is formed in destinations, the associated cost
and the next hop
• In case no changes in the OSPF network occur, OSPF should be very
quiet
• The algorithm places each router at the root of a tree and
calculates the shortest path to each destination
• Each router will have its own view of the topology even though the
same link-state database.
OSPF COST
• THE COST (ALSO CALLED METRIC) IS AN INDICATION OF THE OVERHEAD
REQUIRED TO SEND PACKETS ACROSS A CERTAIN INTERFACE
• THE COST OF AN INTERFACE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE
BANDWIDTH OF THAT INTERFACE
• A HIGHER BANDWIDTH INDICATES A LOWER COST
“THERE IS MORE OVERHEAD (HIGHER COST) AND TIME DELAYS
INVOLVED IN CROSSING A 56K SERIAL LINE THAN CROSSING A 10M
ETHERNET LINE”
• BY DEFAULT THE FORMULA USED TO CALCULATE THE COST IS:
COST = 100.000.000/BANDWIDTH (in bps)
 OSPF TREE
• TO BUILD THE SHORTEST PATH TREE FOR RTA, RTA MUST BE THE network diagram with the indicated
ROOT OF THE TREE interface costs
• CALCULATE THE SMALLEST COST FOR EACH DESTINATION.
• NOTE THE DIRECTION OF THE ARROWS WHEN CALCULATING THE
COST
• FOR EXAMPLE, THE COST OF RTB'S INTERFACE TO NETWORK
128.213.0.0 IS NOT RELEVANT WHEN CALCULATING THE COST TO
192.213.11.0
• RTA CAN REACH 192.213.11.0 VIA RTB WITH A COST OF 15 (10+5).
• RTA CAN ALSO REACH 222.211.10.0 VIA RTC WITH A COST OF 20
(10+10) OR VIA RTB WITH A COST OF 20 (10+5+5)
• IN CASE EQUAL COST PATHS EXIST TO THE SAME DESTINATION,
CISCO'S IMPLEMENTATION OF OSPF WILL KEEP TRACK OF UP TO SIX
NEXT HOPS TO THE SAME DESTINATION.
• AFTER THE ROUTER BUILDS THE SHORTEST PATH TREE, IT WILL START
BUILDING THE ROUTING TABLE ACCORDINGLY
• DIRECTLY CONNECTED NETWORKS WILL BE REACHED VIA A METRIC
(COST) OF 0 AND OTHER NETWORKS WILL BE REACHED ACCORDING
TO THE COST CALCULATED IN THE TREE.
 • OSPF USES FLOODING TO EXCHANGE LINK-STATE UPDATES BETWEEN
ROUTERS.

OSPF AREAS • AREAS ARE INTRODUCED A BOUNDARY ON THE EXPLOSION OF

LINK-STATE UPDATES
• FLOODING AND CALCULATION OF THE DIJKSTRA ALGORITHM ON A
AND ROUTERS ROUTER IS LIMITED TO CHANGES WITHIN AN AREA
• ROUTERS THAT BELONG TO MULTIPLE AREAS, AND CONNECT THESE
AREAS TO THE BACKBONE AREA ARE CALLED AREA BORDER
ROUTERS (ABR)
• ABRS MUST MAINTAIN INFORMATION DESCRIBING THE BACKBONE
AREAS AND OTHER ATTACHED AREAS
• AN AREA IS INTERFACE SPECIFIC
• A ROUTER THAT HAS ALL OF ITS INTERFACES WITHIN THE SAME
AREA IS CALLED AN INTERNAL ROUTER (IR)
• ROUTERS THAT ACT AS GATEWAYS (REDISTRIBUTION)BETWEEN
OSPF AND OTHER ROUTING PROTOCOLS (IGRP, EIGRP, IS-IS, RIP, BGP,
STATIC) OR OTHER INSTANCES OF THE OSPF ROUTING PROCESS ARE
CALLED AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM BOUNDARY ROUTER (ASBR)
• ANY ROUTER CAN BE AN ABR OR AN ASBR.
 OSPF LINK STATE PACKETS
ROUTER LINKS
• THE ROUTER LINKS ARE AN INDICATION OF THE STATE OF
THE INTERFACES ON A ROUTER BELONGING TO A CERTAIN
AREA
• EACH ROUTER WILL GENERATE A ROUTER LINK FOR ALL OF
ITS INTERFACES.
SUMMARY LINKS
• SUMMARY LINKS ARE GENERATED BY ABR; THIS IS HOW
NETWORK REACHABILITY INFORMATION IS DISSEMINATED
BETWEEN AREAS.
• NORMALLY, ALL INFORMATION IS INJECTED INTO THE
BACKBONE (AREA 0)
• IN TURN, THE BACKBONE WILL PASS IT ON TO OTHER
AREAS
• ABR ALSO HAS THE TASK OF PROPAGATING THE
REACHABILITY OF THE ASBR. THIS IS HOW ROUTERS KNOW
HOW TO GET TO EXTERNAL ROUTES IN OTHER AS
OSPF LINK STATE PACKETS
EXTERNAL LINKS
• EXTERNAL LINKS ARE AN INDICATION OF NETWORKS
OUTSIDE OF THE AS. THESE NETWORKS ARE INJECTED
INTO OSPF VIA REDISTRIBUTION. THE ASBR HAS THE
TASK OF INJECTING THESE ROUTES INTO AN
AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM
NETWORK LINKS
• NETWORK LINKS ARE GENERATED BY A DESIGNATED
ROUTER (DR) ON A SEGMENT . THIS INFORMATION IS
AN INDICATION OF ALL ROUTERS CONNECTED TO A
PARTICULAR MULTI-ACCESS SEGMENT SUCH AS
ETHERNET, TOKEN RING AND FDDI (NBMA ALSO)
INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM TO
INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM (IS IS)
• IS A LINK-STATE INTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (IGP).
• ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE PROPAGATION OF THE INFORMATION
REQUIRED TO BUILD A MAP OF COMPLETE NETWORK CONNECTIVITY ON
EACH PARTICIPATING DEVICE.
• THE MAP IS THEN USED TO CALCULATE THE SHORTEST PATH TO
DESTINATIONS.
• THE PROTOCOL WAS DEVELOPED IN THE LATE 1980S BY DIGITAL
EQUIPMENT CORPORATION (DEC)
 IS IS FUNCTIONAL OVERVIEW
• A ROUTING DOMAIN MAY BE DIVIDED INTO ONE OR MORE SUBDOMAINS
• EACH SUBDOMAIN IS REFERRED TO AS AN AREA AND IS ASSIGNED AN AREA ADDRESS
• ROUTING WITHIN AN AREA IS REFERRED TO AS LEVEL-1 ROUTING.
• ROUTING BETWEEN LEVEL-1 AREAS IS REFERRED TO AS LEVEL-2 ROUTING.
• A DEVICE IN OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI) TERMINOLOGY IS REFERRED TO AS AN
INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM (IS).
• AN IS MAY OPERATE AT LEVEL 1, LEVEL 2, OR BOTH
• IS THAT OPERATE AT LEVEL 1 EXCHANGES ROUTING INFORMATION WITH OTHER LEVEL-1 ISs IN THE
SAME AREA
• IS THAT OPERATE AT LEVEL 2 EXCHANGES ROUTING INFORMATION WITH OTHER LEVEL-2 DEVICES
REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY ARE IN THE SAME LEVEL-1 AREA.
• THE SET OF LEVEL-2 DEVICES AND THE LINKS INTERCONNECTING THEM FORM THE LEVEL-2
SUBDOMAIN, WHICH MUST NOT BE PARTITIONED IN ORDER FOR ROUTING TO WORK PROPERLY
IS IS PDU TYPES
IS IS has several packet data units (PDUs)
PDUs in IS IS is categorized into :
• Intermediate system to intermediate system hello (IIH)
• Link state PDU (LSP)
• Sequence number PDU (SNP)
IS IS PDU TYPES
IIH
IIHs are exchanged between IS neighbors on circuits on which the IS-IS protocol is enabled
IIHs include the system ID of the sender, the assigned area address(es), and the identity of
neighbors on that circuit that are known to the sending IS
Three types of IIHs:
• Point-to-point IIHs—are sent on point-to-point circuits
• Level-1 LAN IIHs—are sent on multiaccess circuits when the sending IS operates as a level-1
device on that circuit.
• Level-2 LAN IIHs—are sent on multiaccess circuits when the sending IS operates as a level-2
device on that circuit.
IS IS PDU TYPES
LSP
An IS generates LSP to advertise its neighbors and the destination that are directly connected to the IS
Level-1 LSPs are generated by LSS that support level 1
The level-1 LSPs are flooded throughout the level-1 area
The set of level-1 LSPs generated by all level-1 ISS in an area is the level-1 LSP database (LSPDB)
All level-1 ISS in an area will have an identical level-1 LSPDB and will therefore have an identical network
connectivity map for the area
Level-2 LSPs are generated by ISS that support level 2
Level-2 LSPs are flooded throughout the level-2 subdomain
The set of level-2 LSPs generated by all level-2 ISS in the domain is the level-2 LSP database (LSPDB)
All level-2 ISS will have an identical level-2 LSPDB and will therefore have an identical connectivity map
for the level-2 subdomain
IS IS PDU TYPES
SNP
Sequence number pdus (SNPs) contain a summary description of one or more
LSPs
There are two types of SNPs for both level 1 and level 2:
• Complete sequence number pdus (CSNPs) are used to send a summary of
the LSPDB that an IS has for a given level.
• Partial sequence number pdus (PSNPs) are used to send a summary of a
subset of the LSPs for a given level that an IS either has in its database or
needs to obtain.
IS IS SUPPORTED CIRCUITS
IS-IS SUPPORTS TWO GENERIC CIRCUIT TYPES:

• POINT-TO-POINT CIRCUITS
• MULTIACCESS CIRCUITS
IS IS ON POINT TO POINT
A point-to-point circuit has exactly two ISS on the circuit
An IS forms a single adjacency to the other IS on the point-to-point circuit
The adjacency type describes what level(s) are supported on that circuit.
If both ISS support level 1 on that circuit and the ISS are configured with at least one
matching address, the adjacency supports level 1.
Level-1 LSPs and SNPs will be sent on that circuit.
If both ISS support level 2 on that circuit, the adjacency supports level 2
Level-2 LSPs and SNPs will be sent on that circuit
The adjacency then can be level 1, level 2, or level 1 and 2
IS IS ON POINT TO POINT
ISSs send point-to-point IIHs on point-to-point circuits
IIHs allow each IS to discover the identity of the neighbor, the configured area address(es),
and the supported levels
When an adjacency is first established, each IS sends a set of CSNPs for each level that is
supported on the circuit.
A CSNP set describes the current contents of the LSPDB at that level.
By comparing the contents of the set of received CSNPs with the contents of the local
LSPDB, each IS can determine where the databases differ and initiate procedures to
exchange the necessary LSPs so that the databases are efficiently and reliably synchronized.
PSNPs are sent to acknowledge the receipt of an updated LSP
IS IS ON MULTIACCESS
Multiaccess circuits support multiple ISs; for example, two or more operating
on the circuit
An IS that supports level 1 on a multiaccess circuit sends level-1 IIHs on the
circuit
An IS that supports level 2 on a multiaccess circuit sends level-2 IIHs on the
circuit
ISs form separate adjacencies for each level with neighbor ISs on the circuit
An IS will form a level-1 adjacency with other ISs that support level 1 on the
circuit and will have a matching area address
It is a misconfiguration to have two ISs with disjoint sets of area addresses
supporting level 1 on the same multiaccess circuit
An IS will form a level-2 adjacency with other ISs that support level 2 on the
circuit.
The devices in the IS-IS network topology perform level 1, level 2, or level 1
and 2 routing along the backbone of the network.
IS-IS OVERVIEW IN LSPDB SYNCHRONIZATION
Proper operation of IS-IS requires a reliable and efficient process to synchronize the LSPDBs
on each IS
In IS-IS this process is called the update process
The update process operates independently at each supported level
LSPs may be locally generated, in which case they always are new LSPs.
LSPs may also be received from a neighbor on a circuit, in which case they may be generated
by some other IS or may be a copy of an LSP generated by the local IS.
Received LSPs may be older, the same age, or newer than the current contents of
the local LSPDB
IS-IS HANDLING NEW LSP
A newer LSP is added to the local LSPDB
If an older copy of the same LSP currently exists in the LSPDB, it is replaced
The newer LSP is marked to be sent on all circuits on which the IS currently has
an adjacency
On point-to-point circuits, the newer LSP will be flooded periodically until the
neighbor acknowledges by sending a PSNP or an LSP that is the same or newer
than the LSP being flooded.
On multiaccess circuits, the IS will flood the newer LSP once.
IS-IS HANDLING NEW LSP
The IS examines the set of CNSPs that are sent periodically by DIS
If the local LSPDB contains one or more LSPs that are newer than what is
described in the CSNP set, those LSPs are reflooded over the multiaccess
circuit.
If the local LSPDB contains one or more LSPs that are older than what is
described in the CSNP set, a PSNP is sent on the multiaccess circuit with
descriptions of the LSPs that require updating.
The DIS for the multiaccess circuit responds by sending the requested LSPs.
IS-IS HANDLING OLDER LSP
An IS may receive an LSP that is older than the copy in the local LSPDB.
An IS may receive an SNP (complete or partial) that describes an LSP that is
older than the copy in the local LSPDB.
In both cases the IS marks the LSP in the local database to be flooded on the
circuit on which the older LSP or SNP that contained the older LSP was received.
At this point, the actions taken are identical to the actions that are described in
the “handling of newer LSPs” section after a new LSP has been added to the
local database.
IS-IS HANDLING THE SAME LSP
On a point-to-point circuit, receipt of such an LSP is ignored.
Periodic transmission of a CSNP set by the DIS for that circuit will serve as
an implicit acknowledgement to the sender that the LSP has been
received.
In a multiaccess circuit, receipt of such an LSP is ignored.
Periodic transmission of a CSNP set by the DIS for that circuit will serve as
an implicit acknowledgement to the sender that the LSP has been
received.
 IS-IS CONFIGURATION
The figure below shows how the LSPs are used
to create a network map.
Imagine the network topology as a jigsaw
puzzle.
Each LSP (representing an IS) is considered one
of the jigsaw pieces.
IS-IS SHORTEST PATH CALCULATION
When the contents of the LSPDB change, each IS independently reruns a shortest path
calculation.
The algorithm is based on Dijkstra algorithm for finding the shortest paths along a directed
graph
A two-way connectivity check is performed before considering a link between two ISs as part of
the graph.
This prevents the use of stale information in the LSPDB, for example, when one IS is no longer
operating in the network but did not purge the set of LSPs that it generated before ceasing
operation.
The output of the SPF is a set of tuples (destination, next hop).
IS-IS SHORTEST PATH CALCULATION
The destinations are protocol-specific; for example, they would be prefixes when the supported
protocol is IP, NSAPs offend systems when the supported protocol is CLNP.
Multiple equal-cost paths are supported, in which case multiple next hops would be associated
with the same destination.
Independent SFPs are performed for each level supported by the IS.
In cases in which the same destination is reachable by both level-1 and level-2 paths, the level-
1 path is preferred.
A level-2 IS that indicates that it has one or more level-2 neighbors in other areas may be used
by level-1 devices in the same area as the path of last resort, also called the default route.
The level-2 IS indicates its attachment to other areas by setting an attached bit (ATT) in its level-
1 LSP 0.