Psychological

principals of
learning and
memory

By: Saba Akram Qazi

What is
memory
?????
 MEMORY
Encoding: or registration:
receiving, processing and
combining of received
Memory is the From an information
Information
process in Processing
which perspective there Storage: creation of a
information is are three main permanent record of the
stages in the encoded information
encoded,
stored, and formation and
retrieval of Retrieval: recall or recolle
retrieved. memory: ction: calling back the
stored information in
response to some cue for
use in a process or
activity
 Iconic Memory is a fast decaying
store of visual information, a type
SENSORY MEMORY of sensory memory that briefly
stores an image which has been
perceived for a small duration.

Echoic Memory is a fast decaying

Sensory memory holds store of auditory information,
sensory information for a another type of sensory memory
few seconds or less after that briefly stores sounds that
have been perceived for short
an item is perceived durations.

Haptic Memory is a type of

sensory memory that represents a
database for touch stimuli.
Short-term memory
Short-term memory allows recall for a
period of several seconds to a minute
without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very
limited George A. Miller (1956)conducted
experiments showing that the store of
short-term memory was 7±2 items (the
title of his famous paper The magical
number 7±2 Some Limits on our Capacity
for Processing Information
long-term memory can store much larger quantities of
information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes
a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. Long
term
memory
 Long term memory

Declarative Declarative memory refers to episodic memory, which stores

memories which can be consciously
recalled such as facts and
knowledge. Declarative memory
can be divided into two categories:
specific personal experiences,
and semantic memory, which
stores factual information.

Procedural refers to unconscious memories

such as skills (e.g. learning to ride a
(non- bicycle)
declarative)
 Types of long term memory
Long term memory is commonly broken down into
Episodic Memory
• refers to memory for specific events in time for e.g. remembering someone's name and
what happened at your last interaction with each other.
Semantic memory
• refers to knowledge about factual information, such as the meaning of word

Procedural memory
• Procedural memory reflects our knowledge of how to perform certain skills and actions. For example
how to ride a bicycle, drive a car, play the guitar, swim, use a pen, and play basketball.
 Examples:
• The name of your pet bird growing up

• The name of your fifth-grade teacher

• Driving a motorcycle

• Ice skating

• Riding a bicycle

• Shooting an arrow

• Tragic Accident

• Names of flowers
 Memory
Organizational
Chart
 Short Term
• Limited capacity
• Acoustically encoded
Comparison of Three
• Brief storage (up to 30 seconds
w/o rehearsal)
Stages of Memory
• Conscious processing of
information
Sensory Long Term
• Large capacity • Unlimited capacity
• Contains sensory information • Semantically encoded
• Very brief retention (1/2 sec • Storage presumed permanent
for visual; 2 secs for auditory) • Information highly organized
 Theories of forgetting
Forgetting (retention loss) refers to apparent loss of
information already encoded and stored in an individual's
long term memory.

Memory
Wishful Interference
Encoding failure decay/disuse
forgetting theory
theory

Proactive Retroactive
interference interference
1 Encoding failure
• A theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the failure to encode the
information into long-term Memory. Encoding failure in steps-SM-STM-LTM
2 Memory decay theory
• A theory that proposes that forgetting is due to the decay of physical traces
of the information in the brain; periodically using the information helps to
maintain it in the brain.

3 Wishful Forgetting
• Wishfully pushing memory away. not remembering/ recalling it i.e. painful
memories.
 4. Interference theory: a theory that proposes that
forgetting is due to other information in memory interfering

Proactive interference: old information interferes with

the retrieval of newly-stored information

Retroactive Interference: newly-stored information

interferes with the retrieval of previously-stored
information
Retroactive vs. Proactive Interference
Common Measuring Procedures to check learning
Recall Direct retrieval of facts or information

Recognition A measure of long-term memory retrieval that only requires the

identification of the information in the presence of retrieval cues

Relearning The savings method of measuring long-term memory retrieval, in which

the measure is the amount of time saved when learning information for
the second time.
Association
Learning by pairing up/ Associations
 Example: Recall and Recognition
Example of Recall:
• The process of storing information in memory is called
______________.

Example of Recognition:
• The process of storing information in memory is called:
• a. rehearsal b. deep processing
• c. encoding d. retrieval
 Serial Position Effect:

Recall (Direct retrieval of facts or information)

• Hardest to recall items in the middle of a list
• Primacy effect: easier to remember items first in a list than
items in the middle, because first items are studied the most
• Recency effect: easier to remember items last in a list than
items in the middle, because the last items were last studied
Retrograde Amnesia

• Loss of memory for past.

• It is loss of memory-access to events that occurred, or
information that was learned, before an injury or the
onset of a disease. Memory
Antrograde Amnesia loss
• Inability to form new long term memory.
• It is a loss of the ability to create new Memories after
the event that caused the amnesia, leading to a partial
or complete inability to recall the recent past, while
long term memories from before the event remain
intact
 Frederic bartlett and reconstructive memory

Bartlett(1932) suggested that memory is a reconstructive

process rather a simple and accurate reproduction process.

People ‘s memories are not necessarily accurate

representations of the past.
 Bartlett(1932)

Input schema output

Frederic Bartlett and reconstructive memory
The subjects
Bartlett found that what is reconstructed the story
recalled of the represented was consistent with
experience or information is
not the same as what was western world
presented or encoded. view(their schema of
the world)

“there were two ghosts…..they

were on the river…..the started
the war and several were
killed…. One ghost was wounded
but did not feel sick. He went to
the village to tell the story……”
 Reconstructive remembering: memory schemas

We tend to “fill in” of our
memories based on past
experience, expectations.
Schemas:
• Organized knowledge structures in long
term memory. Or clusters of related facts
mental representation of things this
might be fitted and modified.
• We sometimes distort memories to fit
schemas.
• Schemas includes expectations.
Schema and reconstructive memory
Bartlett(1932) argued
that we rely on schemas
Leveling
as well as content to
remember stories.

Typically the following

Sharpening
errors are made:

Assimilation
 Finally the reproduction as a
As time goes the whole tends to be organized
reproduction becomes and simplified into a
shorter i.e. Leveled due coherent and easily
to omission of an increasing understandable account i.e.
no of items. Assimilation

At the same time few

features of the story were
dominant i.e. Sharpened
and other details of the
reproduction are arranged
and grouped so as to fit in
with the sharpened items.
 If the time interval
between
observations and
report is too long
much of the
testimony of subject
is not reliable.
 Memory change and rumor

Rumor is a communication which is passed on from

individual to individual unsupported by reliable
evidence.

• Leveling
• Sharpening
• assimilation
Fredrick Bartlett and reconstructive memory

In 1932 Fredrick Previous knowledge

Bartlett laid the affecting the
foundation for the process of new
stimuli.
schema theory.
WHAT IS
LEARNING
???
 What is learning
In other words, as we learn, we
Learning can be defined as the alter the way we perceive our
process leading to relatively environment, the way we
permanent behavioral change or interpret the incoming stimuli,
potential behavioral change. and therefore the way we
interact, or behave.
Two types of learning
• Learning by Association
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Learning by Observation
Classical conditioning

It was pioneered by Ivan It mainly regulates

Pavlov who conditioned dogs involuntary, reflexive
to salivate when a tone was responses.
Definition: Classical presented
conditioning is a type of
conditioning in which the
stimulus acquires the capacity
to evoke a response originally
evoked by another stimulus. Examples include emotional
responses such as fears and
physiological responses such
as immunosuppression
 Another example of classical
For example, an ad for a fast conditioning occurs in ads
food restaurant will usually where you see people
make the food look delicious
having a good time using a
and mouth-watering so that
product. Consumers may
consumers will feel hungry
when they watch the ad and then associate good feelings
want to go out and buy some and having fun with the
of the food. product and may be more
likely to buy the product.

In classical conditioning,
the advertiser attempts
to get consumers to
associate their product
with a particular feeling
or response, in the hope
that the consumer will
then buy the product.
Advertising that uses music is taking
advantage of classical conditioning.

Music that is happy and repetitive helps consumers to feel happy when
they hear it. Consumers then associate the feelings of happiness with
the product and may be more likely to buy the product.

Jingles that stick in the mind, such as rhyming jingles, or tunes based
on popular songs, can also act as a form of classical conditioning.

Every time the consumer remembers the tune, they unconsciously also
remember the product associated with it. This may make the consumer
more likely to buy the product.
Operant conditioning
Also called instrumental conditioning as
the organism’s behavior is instrumental
in producing the outcome
 Definition: • E. L. Thorndike’s work on Instrumental learning
Operant and the law of effect provided the foundation
conditioning is for the study of operant conditioning.
a type of
• It was pioneered by B. F. Skinner who showed
learning in
that rats and pigeons tend to repeat responses
which
that are followed by favorable outcomes
responses
come to be • Operant conditioning mainly regulates
controlled by voluntary, spontaneous responses such as
their studying, going to work, telling jokes, and asking
consequences someone out.
 • increasing a • increasing a
behavior by behavior by
administering a removing an
reward aversive
stimulus when a
behavior occurs
1. POSITIVE 2. NEGATIVE
REINFORCEM REINFORCEM
ENT ENT
OPERANT CONDITIONING
TECHNIQUES
3.
EXTINCTION
PUNISHMENT • decreasing a behavior by
administering an aversive
• decreasing a stimulus following a
behavior by behavior OR by removing a
not rewarding positive stimulus
it
 POSITIVE Presenting something
Behaviour strengthened
REINFORCEMENT the organism likes

NEGATIVE Removing something Behaviour strengthened

REINFORCEMENT the organism doesn’t like

Presenting something
PUNISHMENT Behaviour weakened
the organism doesn’t like
 Positive reinforcement
This is a type of operant conditioning in which consumers are rewarded for buying
a product or service. The reward acts to reinforce the behavior, making the
consumer more likely to continue buying the product.

One operant conditioning strategy is to

For example, coupons are a form of offer consumers a free sample, then a
operant conditioning. Consumers use coupon good for a large discount, then
coupons to buy a product for money a coupon for a smaller discount. At the
Free offers are another form of
off, then continue to buy the product end of this, the consumer may be so
operant conditioning.
even when the coupons are no longer used to using the product that they
available, because they become continue to buy it at full price. Offers
conditioned to buying the product. such as “Buy 10, get one free” are
another form of operant conditioning.
 Negative Reinforcement
In negative reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by stopping,
removing, or avoiding a negative outcome or
aversive stimulus

One of the best ways to remember negative

reinforcement is to think of it as something
being subtracted from the situation

School students dislikes homework, teacher decided to cancel homework after seeing students
perform exceptionally on exams
Schedules of reinforcement
• Conditions involving various rates
and times of reinforcement
• Reinforcement is necessary in
operant behavior

Reinforcement schedules
• continuous
• fixed and variable
• ratio and interval
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT reinforcement is
Fixed Interval presented after a fixed
reinforcement occurs amount of time
after a certain
Interval schedules amount of time has
reinforcement is
passed
delivered on a
Variable Interval
random/variable time
schedule

reinforcement
Fixed Ratio presented after a fixed
# of responses
reinforcement occurs
Ratio schedules after a certain
number of responses reinforcement delivery
is variable but based
Variable Ratio
on an overall average #
of responses
 Edward Trial and
Law of
error
Thorndike effect
learning
 The Law Of Effect
Responses which
Responses which are were followed by
followed by a satisfying
state of affairs would annoying state of
occur with greater and affairs would occur
greater frequency over less frequently over
time. time.
 Law of effect (in other words)

If a stimulus leads to a If the stimulus lead to

response which in turn a response that leads
leads to reinforcement to punishment
• The SR-connection is • the SR connection is
strengthened weakened
 Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Similarities learning by association

change involuntary
behavior/reflex change voluntary behavior

passive learning (internalize, active learning(feedback given)

Differences no feedback)
use reinforcement /
turn neutral stimulus into punishment after a behavior to
conditioned stimulus to elicit strengthen / weaken it
a behavior
 In classical conditioning,
consumers respond to a stimulus
Classical conditioning in a particular, unconscious way –
and operant • for example, by salivating when they see
a picture of delicious food.
conditioning are
psychological
reactions exploited by In operant conditioning,
advertisers to advertisers try to change
convince us to buy consumers' behavior by using
their products. rewards or punishment.
• For example, by giving consumers money
back after buying a particular product.
 Learning by observation
Modeling
Observational It was pioneered
learning occurs Both classical and Observational
by Albert
when an operant learning depends
Bandura, who
organism’s conditioning can on the processes
showed that
responding is take place of attention,
influenced by the
conditioning does
through retention,
observation of not have to be a
observational reproduction and
others, called product of direct
learning motivation.
models. experience.
Bandura’s experiments on children using the Bobo Doll (Modelling)
Bandura distinguishes Observational
between the learning can explain
acquisition of a why physical
learned response and punishment tends to
the performance of increase aggression in
that response with children even when it
the latter depending is intended to do the
on reinforcement. opposite.