INTERMOLECULAR

FORCES
VISCOSITY
What is Viscosity
• Resistance of a liquid to flow is called VISCOSITY
• It is related to the ease with which molecules can
move past each other.
• Viscosity increases with stronger intermolecular
forces caused by increase in the molecular weight,
and decreases with higher temperature.
• For liquids, typically the larger the Intermolecular
forces (IMF) the higher viscosity. The Other factors
that affect viscosity are temperature and the shape
of the molecule.
• Higher temperatures will correspond to higher
average Kinetic energies and faster moving
molecules. This will lead to a lower Viscosity. The
shape will also affect the viscosity, as molecules
with many branches or kinks will be harder to
“slide-like” one another that small “round”
molecules.
 VAPOR PRESSURE
AND BOILING POINT
BOILING POINT
• There is a statistical range of kinetic energies (velocities)
of particles in the liquid.
• Some particles will always have enough energy to break
away from attractive forces that keep them in liquid to
evaporation (vapor pressure).
• As temperature rises, eventually it is high enough that
so many particles can break away that their gas pressure
(vapor pressure) equals the pressure of the surroundings
to boiling.
•Boiling continues with no change in
temperature until all liquid particles have
converted to gas phase
•Normal boiling point is temperature at
which vapor pressure reaches atmospheric
pressure when patm = 1atm
MOLAR HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION
• The amount of heat necessary to boil (or condense) 1.00
mole of a substance at its boiling point

Note the two important factors:

1) It’s 1.00 mole of a substance
2) there is no temperature change
•Keep in mind the fact that this is a very specific
value. It is only for one mole of substance
boiling. The molar heat of vaporization is an
important part of energy calculations since it
tells you how much energy is needed to boil
each mole of substance on hand. (Or, if we
were cooling off a substance, how much
energy per mole to remove from a substance
as it condenses.)
• Every substance has its own molar heat of
vaporization.
•The units for the molar heat of vaporization
are kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol). Sometimes
the unit J/g is used. In that case, it is referred
to as the heat of vaporization, the term ‘molar’
being eliminated.
 STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES OF WATER
• Water is the most abundant compound on Earth’s
surface. In nature, water exists in the liquid, solid,
and gaseous states. It is in dynamic equilibrium
between the liquid and gas states at 0 degrees
Celsius and 1 atm of pressure.
• At room temperature (approximately 25 degrees
Celsius), it is a tasteless, odorless, and colorless
liquid. Many substances dissolve in water, and it is
commonly referred to as the universal solvent.
The Phases of Water
• Similar to many other substances, water can take
numerous forms. Its liquid phase, the most common
phase of water on Earth, is the form that is generally
meant by the word “water.”
Solid Phase (Ice)

• The solid phase of water is known as ice and commonly

takes the structure of hard, amalgamated crystals, such
as ice cubes, or of loosely accumulated granular crystals,
such as snow. Unlike most other substances, water’s
solid form (ice) is less dense than its liquid form, as a
result of the nature of its hexagonal packing within its
crystalline structure. This lattice contains more space
than when the molecules are in the liquid state.
The hexagonal structure of ice
As a naturally occurring crystalline
inorganic solid with an ordered
structure, ice is considered to be a
mineral. It possesses a regular
crystalline structure based on the
molecular structure of water, which
consists of a single oxygen atom
covalently bonded to two hydrogen
atoms: H-O-H.
• The density of ice and water as a function of
temperature
The solid form of most substances is denser than the liquid
phase; therefore, a block of a given solid will generally sink
in its corresponding liquid. However, a block of ice floats in
liquid water because ice is less dense than liquid water. The
inset shows the curve in more detail in the range of 0-10
degrees Celsius. Liquid water is most dense at 4 degrees
Celsius.
Liquid Phase (Water)
• Water is primarily a liquid under standard conditions (25 degrees
Celsius and 1 atm of pressure). This characteristic could not be
predicted by its relationship to other, gaseous hydrides of the
oxygen family in the periodic table, such as hydrogen sulfide.
The elements surrounding oxygen in the periodic table –
nitrogen, fluorine, phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine – all combine
with hydrogen to produce gases under standard conditions.
Water forms a liquid instead of a gas because oxygen is more
electronegative than the surrounding elements, with the
exception of fluorine. Oxygen attracts electrons much more
strongly than does hydrogen, resulting in a partial positive
charge on the hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge on
the oxygen atom. The presence of such a charge on each of
these atoms gives a water molecule a net dipole moment.
Gas Phase (Water Vapor)
• The gaseous phase of water is known as water vapor
(or steam) and is characterized by a transparent cloud.
Water also exists in a rare fourth state called
supercritical fluid, which occurs only in extremely
uninhabitable conditions. When water achieves a
specific critical temperature and a specific critical
pressure (647 K and 22.064 MPa), the liquid and gas
phases merge into one homogeneous fluid phase that
shares properties of both gas and liquid.
• Water freezes to form ice, ice thaws to form liquid water, and both water and ice can
transform into the vapor state. Phase diagrams help describe how water changes states
depending on the pressure and temperature.

Phase diagram of water The

three phases of water –
liquid, solid, and vapor – are
shown in temperature-
pressure space.
• Phase diagram of water The three phases of water –
liquid, solid, and vapor – are shown in temperature-
pressure space.

Note the following key points on a phase diagram:

• The critical point (CP), above which only supercritical fluids exist.
• The triple point (TP), a well-defined coordinate where the curves intersect, at which the
three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) exist at equilibrium with each other.
• Well-defined boundaries between solid and liquid, solid and gas, and liquid and gas. During
the phase transition between two phases (i.e, along these boundaries), the phases are in
equilibrium with each other.