INTRODUCTION TO

THERMODYNAMICS

Hamzah Ahmad S
Thermodynamics
Rub your hands together for 15 seconds.

Are your hands warm?

Thermal energy
Thermodynamics Law
• The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states
that if two bodies are each in thermal
equilibrium with some third body, then they
are also in equilibrium with each other.
• Basically, if system A is in thermal equilibrium
with system C and system B is also in
thermal equilibrium with system C, system A
and system B are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• If A=B and B=C then A=C
There is a game
• First Law
• The First Law of Thermodynamics states
that energy can be converted from one
form to another with the interaction of
heat, work and internal energy, but it
cannot be created nor destroyed, under
any circumstances.

You cannot win!

• The Second Law of Thermodynamics
states that the state of entropy of the
entire universe, as an isolated system, will
always increase over time. The second
law also states that the changes in the
entropy in the universe can never be
negative. Heat generally cannot flow
spontaneously from a material at a lower
temperature to a material at a higher
temperature

You can't break even

• The 3rd law of thermodynamics will essentially allow us
to quality the absolute amplitude of entropies.
• It says that when we are considering a totally perfect
(100% pure) crystalline structure, at absolute zero (0
Kelvin), it will have no entropy (S).
• Note that if the structure in question were not totally
crystalline, then although it would only have an
extremely small disorder (entropy) in space, we could
not precisely say it had no entropy.
• One more thing, we all know that at zero Kelvin, there
will still be some atomic motion present, but to continue
making sense of this world, we have to assume that at
absolute Kelvin there is no entropy whatsoever.
You can't even get out of the game
Equilibrium

• The state of a system • A system in

in which properties thermodynamic
have definite, equilibrium satisfies:
unchanged values as – mechanical equilibrium
long as external (no unbalanced
conditions are forces)
unchanged – thermal equilibrium (no
temperature
differences)
– chemical equilibrium.
Introduction
Thermodynamics: The branch of physical science that deals with
the relations between heat and other forms of
energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or
chemical energy), and, by extension, of the
relationships between all forms of energy
Forms of Energy
Various forms of energy include:
• Electric field energy (like in a capacitor)
• Magnetic field energy (like in an inductor)
• Chemical potential energy (like in a battery)
• Linear and/or rotational kinetic energy (like in a moving motor)
• Gravitational potential energy (like in a pendulum or swing)
• Elastic potential energy (like in a spring)
• Vibrational kinetic energy (like in sound waves in the air)
• Photon or electromagnetic wave energy (like in light and radio waves)
• Heat (like that dissipated by a resistor)
Thermodynamics
The study of the effects of work, heat
flow, and energy on a system
Movement of thermal energy
Engineers use thermodynamics in
systems ranging from nuclear power
plants to electrical components.

SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM

BOUNDARY
Thermal Energy versus Temperature
Thermal Energy is kinetic energy in transit from
one object to another due to temperature
difference. (Joules)
Temperature is the average kinetic energy of
particles in an object – not the total amount of
kinetic energy particles. (Degrees)
Temperature #1 Temperature #2

Heat
Temperature Scales
Scale Freezing Boiling point
point of water of water
Celsius 0°C 100°C
Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F
Kelvin 273K 373K

Matter is made up of molecules in motion (kinetic energy)

An increase in temperature increases motion

A decrease in temperature decreases motion
Absolute Zero occurs when all kinetic energy is
removed from a object 0 K = -273° C
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium is obtained when touching
objects within a system reach the same
temperature.
When thermal equilibrium is reached, the system
loses its ability to do work.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two systems
are separately found to be in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, the first two systems are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Object #1
(Thermometer)

Object #1 Object #2 Object #2 Object #3

Thermal Energy (heat) Transfer
The transfer or movement of thermal energy
Most common types of transfer
–Convection
–Conduction
–Radiation
100% efficiency is unattainable
ALL processes are irreversible
TRUE / FALSE

1. Heat is a form of energy, and has

units of Joules.

2. Friction is the main source of

heat loss for all mechanical
systems.

3. Power is a measure of how much

energy is delivered per unit time.
 ENERGY: a very old and basic notion.

What is energy?
Energy is the ability to do useful work. It is the ability to
move something, heat something, grind something, light
something …

All other engineering disciplines study energy conversion

they just choose different energy inputs and outputs
(electrical, mechanical, chemical …) James Joule (1818-188

SI unit of energy ~ Joule ~ [J]

1J=1Nm

Joules/seconds = Watts

Portrait in Public Domain

One joule in everyday life is approximately:

- the energy required to lift a small apple one meter straight up

- the energy released when that same apple falls one meter to the ground

- the amount of energy, as heat,

that a quiet person generates every hundredth of a second

- the energy required to heat one gram of dry, cool air by 1 degree Celsius

- one thousandth of the energy a person can receive

by drinking a 1mm diameter drop of juice
(Note: 1 food Calorie = 4184 Joules. 1 food Calorie is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius)

- the kinetic energy of an adult human

moving a distance of about a handspan every second.

How many calories do you need to eat per day?

 Let’s make a block diagram of a system
and consider energy flows in and out of the system:
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Law of energy conservation applied to a
thermal system
– Thermal energy can change form and location, but
it cannot be created or destroyed.
– Thermal energy can be increased within a system
by adding thermal energy (heat) or by performing
work in a system.
The First Law of Thermodynamics in
Electronics Design
• The First Law of Thermodynamics is a useful tool in
practical electronics and higher level system design.
• Very often we are interested in using an electronic
system as a tool to transform one form of energy to
another:
 Flashlight: chemical (to electrical) to light
 Electric vehicle: chemical (to electrical) to kinetic
 Radio receiver: electromagnetic wave (to electrical) to
kinetic sound
 Battery charger: electrical to chemical potential
 Diesel generator: chemical to heat to kinetic to
electrical
Introduction
• First of all, we care about how efficiently we do the
energy conversion:
η = Useful work done/Energy from source

• Second, we care about the amount of waste heat we

generate. As electronics designers, we have to deal with
removing that waste heat somehow so our
components don't overheat and fail!

• For example, if we're designing an LED flashlight and we

know our LED circuit has an electrical-to-optical
efficiency of 30% and we've designed it to consume 1
Watt of electrical power, we know two things:
• The flashlight will emit 0.3 Watts of light.
• The flashlight will dissipate 0.7 Watts of heat.
• Both of these values may or may not be within the
bounds of our desired design, but should guide us in
terms of how to approach our design:
• Do we need to find a more efficient LED circuit?
• How long will the battery last?
• How hot will the case get?
• For electrical systems, the analogy may be a little harder
to see, but the same intuition applies:
• A battery left alone will tend to self-discharge.
• A capacitor will try to discharge itself to a lower-
energy state, either through internal or external
resistance.
• The excited electrons within an LED's p-n junction
will try to fall back down to their resting state, emitting
a visible photon in the process.
• The rate at which these actions happen depends the
balance of many things, but energy balance can be
useful problem solving tool on its own.
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Example: Using a bicycle pump
Pumping the handle results in what?
– Applying mechanical energy into the
system
– Mechanical energy is converted into
thermal energy through friction (the pump
becomes hot)

The total increase in internal energy of

the system is equal to what?
– The applied mechanical energy ©iStockphoto.com
 First Law of Thermodynamics

•Conservation of Energy
•Can change internal energy U by
• Adding heat to gas: Q
• Doing work on gas:

Note:
(Work done by the gas) = - (Work done on the gas)

Add heat => Increase Int. Energy & Gas does work
Work done by the volume changes

The work done by a system can be calculated by considering transfer of

energy by gas molecules when the piston is moving where the positive
direction of x axis corresponds to expansion

By integrating both sides we obtain

On the so-called pV diagram the work (up to a sign) equals to the area
under function p(V ) between initial and final states.
When pressure does not change with volume an expression for work can be
obtained by integrating

Expansion corresponds to positive dV and thus to positive work W done by the

system, and contraction corresponds to negative dV and thus to negative work
W done by the system.
Paths Between Thermodynamic States
Work done by a thermodynamic system depends on the path it takes in (p, V, T )
space. Speaking mathematically dW is not an exact differential and for this
reason sometimes written as δW . For example, consider the following
processes
Question
Which shows a system undergoing quasi-static processes for which we can
calculate work interactions as pdV

Along Path a:

Along Path b:
Question
The figure here shows four paths on a p-V diagram which a gas can be taken
from state i to state f. Rank the paths according to the following parameters,
greatest first.

A) the change ∆Eint

All paths start at i and end at f,
therefore all paths have the same change
in internal energy, ∆Eint
B) the greatest work W done by the gas

Path 4 has the maximum area under the p-

V curve.
C) the magnitude of the energy transferred
as heat Q.
Q = ∆Eint + W W is greatest for path 4 =>
Q4 is greatest.
• It is clear that areas under path on the pV diagram depend on the path and
thus the work done by a system is not the same.
• Similarly the heat transferred to a system Q depends on the path it takes
and thus dQ (or perhaps δQ) is not an exact differential.
• Processes corresponding to isothermal and free expansions are illustrated
on the following figures
 Question
Equal amounts of heat are absorbed by 100g samples of various solid
metals with differing specific heat values. Which of the following statements
is true regarding metals and their specific heat values?

A The metal with the smallest specific heat will undergo the smallest change in
temperature. B The metal with the smallest specific heat will resist melting to a greater
degree at its melting point. C The metal with the greatest specific
heat will undergo the smallest change in temperature.
D The metal with the greatest specific heat will resist melting to a
greater degree at its melting point.
1.1 Process Terminology
• Adiabatic – no heat transferred
• Isothermal – constant temperature
• Isobaric – constant pressure
• Isochoric – constant volume
Adiabatic Process
• An adiabatic process transfers no heat
– therefore Q = 0
• ΔU = Q – W
• When a system expands adiabatically, W
is positive (the system does work) so ΔU
is negative.
• When a system compresses adiabatically,
W is negative (work is done on the
system) so ΔU is positive.
Isothermal Process
• An isothermal process is a constant
temperature process. Any heat flow into or
out of the system must be slow enough to
maintain thermal equilibrium
• For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
• Therefore, Q = W
– Any energy entering the system (Q) must
leave as work (W)
Isobaric Process
• An isobaric process is a constant pressure
process. ΔU, W, and Q are generally non-
zero, but calculating the work done by an
ideal gas is straightforward
W = P·ΔV
• Water boiling in a saucepan is an example
of an isobar process
Isochoric Process
• An isochoric process is a constant volume
process. When the volume of a system
doesn’t change, it will do no work on its
surroundings. W = 0
ΔU = Q
• Heating gas in a closed container is an
isochoric process
Question
• In a system undergoing adiabatic
compression, what are the values of
internal energy and heat if work done on
the system is 500J?
• A internal energy is 0J and heat is 500J
• B internal energy is -500J and heat is 0J
• C internal energy is 0J and heat is -500J
• D internal energy is 500J and heat is 0J
Some Vocabulary P

• Isobaric
V
• P = constant

• Isovolumetric P
• V = constant
• W=0
V

• Isothermal
• T = constant
• U = 0 (ideal gas)
P
V
• Adiabatic
• Q=0

P V
 EXAMPLE
A massive copper piston traps an ideal
gas as shown to the right. The piston is
allowed to freely slide up and down and
equilibrate with the outside air.

The pressure inside the

cylinder is _________ the
pressure outside.

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
 Example
A massive copper piston traps an ideal
gas as shown to the right. The piston is
allowed to freely slide up and down and
equilibrate with the outside air.

The temperature inside the cylinder

is __________ the temperature
outside.

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
 Example
A massive copper piston traps an ideal
gas as shown to the right. The piston is allowed to freely
slide up and down and equilibrate with the outside air.

If the gas is heated by a steady

flame, and the piston rises to a new equilibrium position,
the new pressure will be _________ than
the previous pressure.

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
 Example
Consider the two systems shown
to the right.
In Case I, the gas is heated at
constant volume;
in Case II, the gas is heated at
constant pressure.

Compare QI , the amount of heat

needed to raise the temperature
1oC in system I to QII, the amount
of heat needed to raise the
temperature 1oC in system II.

A) QI <QII B) QI =QII C) QI >QII

Answer

Apply the First Law: Q = ∆U + W

In Case I, W = 0, because the volume does not

change.
In Case II, W > 0, because the gas is expanding.

Both cases have the same ∆U, because the

temperature rise is the same. → more heat is
required in Case II
Example
1) Consider the two paths, ia, and af
connecting points i and f on the pV
diagram. Compare the ai
work done by the system in going from i to
a (Wia) to that done by the system in going
from a to f (Waf):

A)Wia >Waf B) Wia =Waf C) Wia <Waf

2) Consider the two paths, 1 and 2,

connecting points i and f on the pV
diagram. Compare the work W2, done by
the system along path 2, with
the work W1, along path 1. 1

A)W2 >W1 B)W2 =W1 C)W2 <W1

Solution

1. C
Not only is the area under ia less than the
area under af, but Wia is negative,
because the volume is decreasing.
The net work, Wia+Waf, is the (positive)
area of the triangle.

2.C

The area of the semicircle is larger than

the area of the triangle.
 Example Outside Air: Room T, Atm. P

A massive piston traps an amount of

Helium gas as shown. The piston freely
slides up and down.
The system initially equilibrates at
room temperature (a)
Weight is slowly added to the piston,
isothermally compressing the gas to
half its original volume (b)

Pb is _______ Pa

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
 Example Outside Air: Room T, Atm. P

A massive piston traps an amount of

Helium gas as shown. The piston freely
slides up and down.
The system initially equilibrates at
room temperature (a)
Weight is slowly added to the piston,
isothermally compressing the gas to
half its original volume (b)

Tb is ________ Ta

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
 Example Outside Air: Room T, Atm. P

A massive piston traps an amount of

Helium gas as shown. The piston freely
slides up and down.
The system initially equilibrates at
room temperature (a)
Weight is slowly added to the piston,
isothermally compressing the gas to
half its original volume (b)

Wab is ________ 0

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to

Vocabulary: Wab is work done by gas between a and b

 Example Outside Air: Room T, Atm. P

A massive piston traps an amount of

Helium gas as shown. The piston freely
slides up and down.
The system initially equilibrates at
room temperature (a)
Weight is slowly added to the piston,
isothermally compressing the gas to
half its original volume (b)

Ub is ________ Ua

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
 Example Outside Air: Room T, Atm. P

A massive piston traps an amount of

Helium gas as shown. The piston freely
slides up and down.
The system initially equilibrates at
room temperature (a)
Weight is slowly added to the piston,
isothermally compressing the gas to
half its original volume (b)

Qab is ________ 0

a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to

Vocabulary: Qab is heat added to gas between a and b

Question
Let 1.00 kg of liquid water at 100oC be converted to steam at 100oC by boiling
at standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm) as shown. The volume of that water
changes from an initial value of 1.00 x10-3m3 as a liquid to 1.671 m3 as steam.

A) How much work is done by the system

during this process?

W = ∫dW = ∫Vf pdV = (1.01x105)(1.671 −

0.001)J = 169.0 kJ

B) How much energy is transferred as heat

during the process?

Q = m LV = (1.00)(2256) = 2256 kJ

C) What is the change in the system’s

internal energy during the
process?
∆Eint =Q–W=2256kJ-169kJ=2087kJ
THERMODYNAMICS 2ND LAW
 THESE PROCESSSES CANNOT
OCCUR EVEN THOUGH THEY DO
NOT VIOLATE FIRST LAW
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Thermal energy flows from hot to cold

When you touch a frozen

pizza with your hand,
thermal energy flows in
what direction?
©iStockphoto.com Hand → Pizza

When you touch a cooked

pizza with your hand,
thermal energy flows in
what direction?
©iStockphoto.com
Pizza → Hand
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy is the measure of how evenly
distributed heat is within a system.
- A system tends to go from order to disorder

Order Disorder
Firewood has low entropy (molecules in order) when stacked
and high entropy when burning (molecules in disorder).
The total amount of energy in the world does not change, but
the availability of that energy constantly decreases.
Thermal Energy Transfer
Convection
The transfer of thermal energy by movement
of fluid (liquid or gas)
When fluid is heated, it expands, becomes
less dense, and rises.
Boiler heating systems
circulate heat
throughout a home
without pumps through
the use of convection.
Thermal Energy Transfer
Conduction
The transfer of thermal energy within an
object or between objects from molecule to
molecule

A metal spoon placed in a hot

cup of soup will feel warm to
your hand. The heat from the
soup is conducted through the
spoon. ©iStockphoto.com
The Second Law Applied to
Refrigerators

Efficiency
= (QC/W) = [(QC)/(QH - QC)]
 The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
can be used to classify
Thermodynamic Processes into
3 Types:
1. Natural Processes
(or Irreversible Processes,
or Spontaneous Processes)
2. Impossible Processes
3. Reversible Processes

We’ll discuss each more thoroughly with examples soon.

Spontaneous Processes & Entropy
Spontaneous Processes
 Processes that can proceed
with no outside intervention
Entropy
• In qualitative terms, Entropy can
be viewed as a measure of the
randomness or disorder of the
atoms & molecules in a system.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Total Entropy always increases
in a
spontaneous process!
So, Microscopic Disorder
also increases in a
spontaneous process!
Spontaneous Processes
Spontaneous Processes 
Processes that can proceed with
no outside intervention.
• Example in the figure: Due to
the
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
the gas in container B will
spontaneously effuse into
container A. But, once the gas is in
both containers,
it will not
spontaneously effuse back into
container B.
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Processes that are spontaneous
in one direction
are not spontaneous
in the reverse direction.
Example in the figure: Due to the
2nd Law of
Thermodynamics
the shiny nail in the top figure will, over a
long time, rust & eventually look as in the
bottom figure. But, if the nail is rusty,
it will not
spontaneously become shiny again!!
• Processes that are spontaneous at one
temperature may be non-spontaneous at
other temperatures.
• Example in the figure:
For T > 0C ice will melt spontaneously.
For T < 0C, the reverse process is spontaneous.
Irreversible Processes

Irreversible Processes 
Processes that cannot be undone by exactly reversing the
process.
All Spontaneous Processes are
Irreversible.
All Real processes are Irreversible.
Examples of Spontaneous, Irreversible
Processes
1. Due to frictional effects, mechanical work changes into
heat automatically.
2. Gas inflates toward vacuum.
3. Heat transfers from a high temperature object to a low
temperature object.
4. Two solutions of different concentrations are put
together and mixed uniformly.
Note!!
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics says that the
opposite processes of these cannot proceed
automatically. In order to take a system back to
it’s initial state, external work must be done on
it.
 Spontaneous Processes (changes):
Once the process begins, it proceeds
automatically without the need to do work on
the system.

• The opposite of every Spontaneous Process

is a
Non-Spontaneous Process
that can only proceed if external work is done on
the system.
Reversible Processes
• In a
Reversible Process,
the system undergoes changes
such that the system plus it’s
surroundings can be put back in
their original states by exactly
reversing the process.
• In a
Reversible Process,
changes proceed in
infinitesimally small steps, so
that the system is infinitesimally
close to equilibrium at every step.
This is obviously an idealization &
can never happen in a real
system!
Another Statement of the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics
“The entropy of the universe does not change
for Reversible Processes” and also:
“The entropy of the universe increases for
Spontaneous Processes” “You can’t break
even”.
For Reversible (ideal) Processes:

For Irreversible (real, spontaneous) Processes:

Still Another Statement of the
2nd Law of Thermodynamics

“In any spontaneous process, there is

always an increase in the entropy of
the universe.”
The Total Entropy S of the Universe
has the property that, for any process,
∆S ≥ 0.
 More Examples of Spontaneous
Processes
Free Expansion of a Gas
• The container on the right is filled with gas. The
container on the left is vacuum. The valve between
them is closed. Now, imagine that the valve is
opened.

Valve
Vacuum Closed Gas
 Free Expansion of a Gas
• After the valve is opened, for some time, it is no longer an
equilibrium situation. The 2nd Law says the molecules on
the right will flow to the left. After a sufficient time, a new
equilibrium is reached & the molecules are uniformly
distributed between the 2 containers.

The Entropy Increases!!!!

After some
time,
there is a new
Valve
Equilibrium Gas Open Gas
 Brief Discussion of
“Impossible Processes” 
• Processes which are
allowed by the 1st Law of Thermodynamics
but which Cannot Occur Naturally
because they would violate the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics.
• Any process which would take a system from an
equilibrium state to a non-equilibrium state without work
being done on the system would violate the 2nd Law
of Thermodynamics & thus would be an
Impossible Process!
Examples of Impossible Processes
• Example 1: “Free Compression” of a Gas!
Initially, the valve is
open
& gas molecules are
uniformly distributed
in the 2 containers. Valve
Gas Open Gas

After some time, all

gas molecules are
gathered in the right
container &
the left container is Gas
Vacuum Valve
empty.
The Entropy Open
Decreases!!
 Thermal Conduction
Initially, an
object is warm.
Warm

After some time,

the left side is hot Hot Cold
& the right side
is cold .
The Entropy
Decreases!!
Conversion of Internal Energy to
Mechanical Energy

Initially, a ball is Hot

on the ground
& is hot.

After some time, the Warm

ball begins to move
upward with kinetic
energy The Entropy
KE = (½) mv2
& it cools down!
Decreases!!
Impossible Processes
Cannot occur without the input of work

đW
• In such a process, the System’s Entropy Decreases,
but the Total Entropy of the System +
Environment Increases

Decrease
Environment
in Entropy

đW

Increase
in Entropy
 You can’t
You can’t win break even
First and second laws examples
• 1. Electric bulbs, when
lighten converts electric
energy into the light energy
(radiant energy) and heat
energy (thermal energy).
• 2. Plants convert the
sunlight (light or radiant
energy) into chemical
energy in the process of
photosynthesis.
• 1. The machines convert
the highly useful energy like
fuels into the less useful
energy, which is not equal
to the energy taken up while
starting the process.
• 2. The heater in the room
uses the electric energy and
give out heat to the room,
but the room in return can't
provide the same energy to
the heater.
Question
Q. The second law of thermodynamics
implies :
a. The whole of heat can be converted into
mechanical energy
b. No heat engine can be 100% efficient
c. Every heat engine has an efficiency of
100%
d. A refrigerator can reduce the temperature
to absolute zero
Thermal Energy Transfer Equations

Q = m  Cp  ΔT

Q = energy transfer (Joules)

m = mass of the material (kilograms)
Cp = specific heat capacity of the material (J / kg C )
T = temperature
Δ = difference
Thermal Energy Transfer Equations
Q ΔT PL
P= P = kA k=
Δt L AΔT
P = rate of energy transfer (Watts)
Q = energy transfer (Joules)
t = time (seconds)
k = thermal conductivity
A = area of thermal conductivity
L = thickness of material
T = temperature
Δ = difference
Calculating Energy Transfer
Calculate the energy transferred when a
block of aluminum at 80.0°C is placed in
1.00 liter (1kg) of water at 25.0°C if the
final temperature becomes 30.0°C.
Step 1. List all known values

Mass of water = 1 kg
J
Cp of water = 4184 kg ×o C

Difference in temperature = ΔT = 30.0°C – 25.0°C =

J 5.0°C
Cp of Al = 900. kg ×o C
Difference in temperature = ΔT = 80.0°C – 30.0°C =
50.0°C
Calculating Energy Transfer
Step 2. List all unknown values
Q = energy transferred
mAl = mass of the Al block

Step 3. Select equations to solve unknown values

Q = m  C p  ΔT QAl = Q water

Step 4. Solve for Qwater

J
Qwater = (1.00kg) • 4184 o
 5.0 C = 21, 000 J gained
o

kg× C
Calculating Energy Transfer
Step 5. Solve for mAl

QAl (lost) = Qwater (gained) = 20,920 J

QAl = mAl  Cp  ΔT
QAl 20,920J
m Al = =
Cp  ΔT 900. J  50.0o C
o
kg C

mAl = 0.46 kg = 460g

Calculating Energy Transfer
Calculate the energy transfer in a wall
section measuring 2m by 1m by 0.04m thick
Q
with a thermal conductivity of 0.10 s× mJ×°C .
Opposing sides of the wall section have a
temperature of 10°C and 5°C after one
hour.
Step 1. List all known values
Area of thermal conductivity = A = 2m * 1m = 2m2
J
Thermal conductivity = k =0.10 s× m ×o C

Thickness of material = L = 0.04m

Difference in temperature = ΔT = 10°C - 5°C =
5°C
Difference in time = Δt = 1 hour = 3600s
Calculating Energy Transfer
Step 2. List all unknown values
P = Rate of energy transfer
Q = Energy transfer

Step 3. Select equations to solve unknown values

Q ΔT
P= P = kA
Δt L
Step 4. Solve in terms of Q
Q = P • Δt
Step 5. Combine equations
ΔT
Q = (kA ) • Δt
L
Calculating Energy Transfer
Step 6. Apply known values

ΔT
Q = (kA ) • Δt
L
 2   5°C  
Q    0.10 J
• 2m  •    • 3600s
 s× m×°C   0.04m  

Q = 90, 000J
• Categorized all conductor and insulator
U-Value
Thermal Conductivity of a Material
Overall heat coefficient
The measure of a material’s ability to
conduct heat **measure how good of an insulator a
material is.

P **The LOWER the U value, the BETTER

U= a material is at being an insulator.

AΔT W
Metric system    °C 
m2
Btu
 
U.S. customary system ft 2  hr  °F 
What type of
window 1,2,3,4 has
least energy
efficient?

Which window
should be compared
to decide if adding
argon to the gap
improved energy
efficiency of the
window?
R-Value
Thermal Resistance of a Material
How well the object retains the
heat=insulating
The higher the R-value, the higher the
resistance (better insulation!!)

1 P
R= U=
U AΔT
Bulk R-value =
R-value Object 1 + R-value Object 2 + … = Total R-Value
Calculating R-Value
Determine the R-value of the wall cavity below
1 in. foil-faced polyisocyanurate
Fiberglass batt (R=7.20)
(R=19) 1 in. air space
(R=0.17)
5/8 in. drywall Brick 2 ¼ x 3 ½ x 8
(R=0.56) (R=0.8)

Wall cavity R-value What is the R-value

at a stud location?
0.56
+19.00 0.56
+ 7.20 + 6.88
+ 0.17 + 7.20
+ 0.8 + 0.17
= 27.7 + 0.8
=15.6
2x6 construction
(2x6 R=6.88)
Thermal Energy Transfer
Radiation
The process by which energy is transmitted
through a medium, including empty space, as
electromagnetic waves
Stefan’s Law
All objects lose and gain
thermal energy by
©iStockphoto.com
electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic waves transfer
Pnet = σAe(T2 - T ) 4
1
4 to food and other matter

P =radiated energy transfer e  emissivity constant

W T  temperature in Kelvin
σ =S tefan's constant = 5.6696x10 -8
m2 ×K 4
A =area
Thermal Energy Transfer
Prior to dressing for school, a student watches the morning
weather to decide what clothes to wear. The bedroom is 65ºF
and the student’s skin is 91.4ºF. Determine the net energy
transfer from the student’s body during the 15.0 minutes spent
watching the morning weather. Note: Skin emissivity is 0.90,
and the surface area of the student is 1.30m2.

Step 1. List all known values

Area =A=1.30m2
Emissivity constant =e=0.90
W
Stefan’s constant = σ = 5.6696 •10-8 ©iStockphoto.com

m2 × K 4
Bedroom temperature =T1=65°F
Skin temperature =T2 =91.4°F
Time in seconds = t = 15.0 minutes = 900.s
Thermal Energy Transfer
Step 2. List all unknown values
P = Rate of energy transfer
Q = Energy transfer
©iStockphoto.com

Step 3. Select equations to solve unknown values

Pnet = σAe(T2 4 - T14 ) Q = P • Δt

Step 4. Apply known values to Pnet =σAe( T2 -T1 )
4 4

91.4°F =306.15K
S olve for( T2 -T )
4 4
1
65°F = 291.48K

( T24 -T14 )= 8,784,904,710.59K  - 7, 218,301,921.12K 

( T2 4 -T14 )= 1566602759.47K
Thermal Energy Transfer
Step 4 (continued). Apply known values to Pnet = σAe T2 - T1
4 4
 
 W 
Pnet =  5.6696  10

-8

m2 ×K 4



 1.30m2

  0.90   1, 566, 602, 759.47K 

Pnet =103.92W

Step 5. Combine equations and solve

Q = PΔt ©iStockphoto.com

93,500J of energy are

transferred from the
Q =103.92W  900.s student’s body during
the 15 minutes spent
Q =93,500J watching the morning
weather.
Applications of Thermal Energy

http://www.nrel.gov
Examples of Solar Energy

All images were obtained from the following URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov

Geothermal Energy
Energy generated from the thermal energy
stored beneath the Earth’s surface
Also refers to the heat that is collected from
the atmosphere; for instance, near the oceans
Resources
Energy Information Association. (n.d.). Energy kid’s page. Retrieved
March 23, 2008, from http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts
McGraw-Hill dictionary of engineering. (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
NASA. (2008). Glenn research center. Retrieved March 23, 2008
from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/home/index.html

National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2007). TroughNet.

Retrieved March 23, 2008, from
http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet

U.S. Department of Energy. (2008). Solar energy technologies

program. Retrieved March 23, 2008, from
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar