PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

I. U. WANNIARACHCHI
 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM
Contents
 Basics of Sound
 System determination and equipment
selection
 Speaker selection and arrangements
 Amplifier selection
 Microphone type selection
 Wiring
 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM
SOUND:
Sound is the quickly varying pressure wave within a medium.
It is transmitted mechanically through compression and
expansion of air.

A vibrating tunning fork is capable of creating a sound wave. As

the tines of the fork vibrate back and forth, they push on
neighboring air particles. The forward motion of a tine pushes air
molecules horizontally to the right and the backward retraction
of the tine creates a low-pressure area allowing the air particles
to move back to the left.
We can represent these compressions and rarefactions
as a wave
How do we hear?
Sound waves travel into the ear canal
until they reach the eardrum. The
eardrum passes the vibrations
through the middle ear bones or
ossicle into the inner ear. The inner
ear is shaped like a snail and is also
called the cochlea. Inside the
cochlea, there are thousands of tiny
hair cells. Hair cells change the
vibrations into electrical signals that
are sent to the brain through the
hearing nerve. The brain tells that
you are hearing a sound and what
that sound is.
Each hair cell has a small patch of stereocilia sticking up put of
the top it. Sound makes the stereocilia rock back and forth. If
the sound is too loud, the setereocilia can be bent or broken.
This will cause the hair cell to dies, it will never grow back. The
high frequency hair cells are most easily damaged, so people
with hearing loss from loud sounds often have problems in
hearing high pitched things like cricket or birds chirping.
 There are two main measurements in sound:
Frequency and decibels.
Frequency is responsible for the quality of sound, decibels measure
the loudness.

Frequency : The measurement of the number of cycles per second in

an audio tone or an alternating current. Frequency is represented in
cycles per second also known as Hertz, abbreviated as Hz.
Humans can hear audio from 20 – 20,000 Hertz. The human ear
does not ear all frequencies with the same sensitivity. It is most
sensitive to 2,000 – 4,000 Hz range. So a 100 dB (loudness level)
sound at 20Hz will not damage the ear as much as a sound at 3,000
Hz.

Decibels : The other measure of sound is the loudness measures in

decibels (dB). Decibels measure sound pressure. The higher the
pressure, the more your eardrum pushes inward.
Sound Energy
Sound is the measurement of energy through substances in
longitudinal ( compression/rarefaction) waves.

Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to

vibrate. The energy is transferred through the substance in a
wave. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than other
forms of energy. (measured in Joule or Newton Meter)

Sound Power
The amount of energy transported per second by a wave is the
power of the wave. (measured in joules per second or watts)
Sound Power Level
Sound power can more practically be expressed as a relation to
the threshold of hearing (10-12W) in a logarithmic scale named
Power Level – Lw , expressed as,
Lw = 10 log (N/No)
Where,
Lw – sound Power Level in Decibels (dB)
N – Sound Power (in W)
No - 10-12 Reference Sound Power
Human hearable sound power spans from 10-12 W to 10 – 100W.

Sound Intensity
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area. The
basic unit is watts/m2 .
Many sound intensity measurements are made relative to a
standard threshold of hearing intensity I0 .
The most common approach to sound intensity measurement is
to use the decibel scale:

I0 = 10-12 watts/m2 = 10-16 watts/cm2

I (dB) = 10 log10 (I/I0) intensity in decibels.

Sound pressure
Sound pressure is the force of sound on a surface area
perpendicular to the direction of sound. (Measured in N/m2
or Pa).
The lowest sound pressure possible to hear is approximately
2x 10-5 Pa (20 micro Pascal, 0.02 mPa)
Relationship between sound intensity and sound pressure.
P0 = 2 x 10-5 Newtons / m2
Sound Intensity, I (dB) = 10 log10 (I/I0)

The pressure P here is to be understood as the amplitude of the pressure

wave. The power carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square
of the amplitude.

I (dB) = 10log10(P2/P02) = 20log10(P/P0)

The factor of 20 comes from the fact that the logarithm of the square of a
quantity is equal to 2 x the logarithm of the quantity.

Sound pressure level (SPL)

Sound pressure level is the acoustic pressure reference for the decibel (dB). In
other words, twenty times the logarithm to base ten of the ratio of the
sound pressure under consideration (p) to the reference sound pressure
(p0).

Sound Pressure Level (Lp) = 20log10 (p/p0)

The standard sound pressure level p0 is 20µPa in air.

Table of sound levels L (loudness of noise) with corresponding
sound pressure and sound intensity.
Permissible exposure time guideline – sound pressure level – SPL
How long can a human being endure a certain noise level before
hearing impairment occurs?
 PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

Codes and standards

BS 6259 : 1997 Code of practice for the design, planning,

installation testing and maintenance of
sound systems.
BS EN 60849 : 1988 Sound Systems for emergency purposes.

BS 5839 Part 1 Fire detection and alarm systems for

buildings.
Types of sound system : Sound systems can be divided into
three different types.
 Sound Reinforcement Systems : Sound of speech, singing or
music reproduced by a lecturer, actor, singer or musical
instruments, to be heard satisfactorily by listeners in the same
acoustic area but at a distance from the sound source.
eg : Auditorium, Lecture Hall

There is a limitation on the sound level in the area due to the

microphones being exposed to the sounds produced by their
associated loudspeakers. Above a certain sound level,
depending on the acoustic properties of the area, acoustic
feed-back occurs, which is heard as a “howl” or “ring” from
the loudspeakers.
 Sound Distribution System: A distribution system enables the
sound of speech, music, tone etc. occurring at one or more places
to be reproduced, usually at the same time, in another place or
places.
eg: messages or announcements spoken by into a
microphone by an unseen announcer.

Sound Reproduction Systems: Such systems are mainly for the

realistic reproduction of music (and speech) usually from recordings,
disc, tape or film. Noise reduction and other sound processing
equipment may be necessary to optimize the fidelity of reproduction.
Categorization of systems by sound quality
There are three basic categories.
1. Category C (Clarity) : This systems aim mainly at the
reproduction of speech of good intelligibility, but not
necessarily a high degree of naturalness. Eg: Music, if
reproduced at all, would be of an acceptable quality but not
necessarily of artistic merit.
2. Category N (Naturalness): Category N Systems are most
commonly used. The aim is to produce intelligible and
natural sounding speech or music of a quality that the
average listener considers pleasant. It is desirable that the
listening conditions are either already fairly good acoustically,
or can be made so by suitable acoustic treatment.
3. Category A (Accuracy) : Category A systems aim the highest
possible quality of reproduction. This category is appropriate
when the audience is expected to be critically interested in
the programme for its own sake and not merely as a
background. It is essential that the listening conditions are
acoustically very good.
What is a Public Address System?
Public Address or “PA” is essentially an audio/sound based
electronic amplification system, that is typically used in public
areas.
Applications of Public Address Systems,
1. Hospitals: The main programme distribution is to bedside sockets
for patients use. A choice of programme is desirable and individual
volume control is essential. A paging system is often required and
this may also carry programmes from the main distribution
particularly in areas such as waiting rooms, nurses rest rooms. Etc.
2. Hotels, Clubs and Restaurants: Sound distribution systems for
background music and announcements will usually be required. A
sound reproduction system may required if a performance in one
room is to be reproduced in other rooms. The sound system may
need to interface with other sound systems and fire alarm and
evacuation systems.
3. Factories, Offices and Department Stores: Recorded materials and
broadcasts are generally of secondary interest to the listeners who
are engage in other activities, but their attention may need to be
drawn to announcements and artificial signals by the use of
increased sound levels. Zoning is required to avoid the
disturbances.

4. Airports, Railway Stations and Passenger Terminals: The ambient

noise levels may be high and cover a wide range of frequencies.
The reverberation time in many cases may be excessive. The areas
to be covered is usually so large and numbers of spaced speakers
have to be used.

5. Indoor Sport Stadiums, Swimming Pools and Exhibitions Halls: The

ambient noise levels are likely to be high and variable and the
reverberation time is often excessive.
Designing of Public Address System
The primary factors to be considered are:
1. Loudness
2. Frequency range
3. Echoes and reverberation
1. Loudness : A good sound system shall have uniform sound
coverage.
Ambient Noise Level: In many locations the back ground noise is
not constant. It may fluctuate over long or short periods, or
both. The technique of ambient noise level sensing may be
applied to systems whos sound output is required to be
controlled, automatically depending on the nature and level
of the back ground.
Sound system output level fixed above the maximum noise,
resulting in excessive loudness during quieter periods.
Sound system output level fixed below the maximum noise
resulting in inaudibility during noisier periods.
Using ambient noise sensing, sound system output level varies
with crowd noise.
Speech Intelligibility: This refers to the degree a listener can
understand spoken words in a particular space. It is important
to clearly hear and differentiate sounds. The two basic
parameters affecting intelligibility are the smoothness of the
system frequency in the speech range (about 400Hz- 4kHz)
and the effective signal to noise ration.

Background Music : Background music plays a different demand

on a sound system than paging. Consider the following point
when designing a background music system. The natural
sounding music reproduction requires a minimum frequency
response range of 100Hz – 10kHz that is wider than the basic
speech range.
2. Frequency Response: When selecting equipment for a sound
system, due consideration should be given to the frequency
response characteristics of the equipment and the nature of
the task it is required to perform.

 The minimum frequency range which a sound system should

reproduce for intelligible speech is 400Hz to 4kHz.
 Reasonable quality sound reproduction – 150Hz to 6kHz.
 High quality sound reinforcement 8kHz to 10kHz.

3. Reflected Sound – Reverberation: When a sound source

ceases in a space the sound waves will continue to reflect off
the hard wall, floor and ceiling surfaces until it loses enough
energy and dies out. The prolongation of the reflected sound
is known as reverberation.
Reverberation Time (RT) is defined as the number of seconds it
takes for the reverberant sound energy to die down to one
millionth (or 60dB) of it’s original value from the instant that
the sound signal ceases. ( in other words it is the time that
would be required for the sound pressure level in the
enclosure to decrease by a given amount, after the source has
been stopped. The recommended amount is 60dB)

Reverberation
The time it takes for reflected sound to die down by 60 decibels
from the cessation of the original sound signal (measured in
seconds)
- Reflected sound tends to “build up” to a level louder than
direct sound. Reflected sounds MASK direct sound.
- Late arriving reflections tends to SMEAR the direct sound
signal
Components of PA System:

Sound Source : These are the input devices of the system. Input
device can be a microphone, DVD player, CD Player, cassette
player, telephone exchange, etc.

Signal conditioning devices: These devices connect the input

and output devices and improve/ control the sound source
input.

Distribution Source: These are the output devices such as

speakers.
Equipment arrangement of a basic PA System
PA system with zone
separation
PA system with
multiple inputs
and zoning
 Speaker Selection and Arrangement
Speaker is a transducer which converts electrical signal to a
corresponding sound signal.
How does it works?
The modern speaker uses an electromagnet to turn electric
signals of varying strength into movement. The coil of copper
wire moves as the magnet energizes. The coil is connected to
a cardboard/paper/vinyl “cone”. The cone is a diaphragm that
vibrates along with the coil. Sound is created and amplified by
the diaphragm. There are variations on how to build the
speaker. A given speaker is designed to produce a specific
frequency range. Not all materials and construction designs
produce all sounds the same.
Speaker Specifications:
1. Sensitivity of a Speaker : The on axis loudness (dB SPL)
measured at a specific distance that results from applying a
specific amount of power (ie. 1W at 1m) the output level of
the speaker at different power levels and distances can be
calculated from this figure.
Level change in dB = 10log (p1/p2)

2. Attenuation over distance: The inverse square law describes

how sound attenuates over distance. It states that volume
(SPL) decreases 6 dB each time the distance from the sound
source is doubled.
Level change in dB = 20log (D1/D2)
Example:
3. Coverage Angle: The coverage angle of the speaker is the angle
within which the SPL is no more than 6dB below the normalized on-
axis level for a given bandwidth or frequency center.
Types of Speakers
1. Ceiling Speakers:
 Distribute sound unobtrusively
from a relatively low ceiling
over a large floor area.
 Uniform sound distribution.
 Suitable for distribution of live
speech and background music.
 Mounting method: Ceiling

2. Wall mounted speakers:

 Full range / multi-ways
 Suitable for foreground music.
 Mounting method: wall ,
columns
3. Paging Horns:
 Can achieve higher SPL than ceiling and wall
speakers.
 Limited frequency response.
 Lower sound quality.
 Higher distortion levels.
 Suitable for out door and wide area
applications.
 Mounting method: wall or columns

4. Subwoofers:
 High fidelity sound.
 Suitable for distributed music systems.
 Mounting method: wall, columns or on floor.
Ceiling speakers
 Amplifier selection
Amplifier is the heart of any sound system. In addition to
providing audio power for a system amplifiers may also
incorporate the input mixing and control functions vital to a
system’s operation.
When selecting an amplifier it is necessary to consider,
1. What sound source will be used,
2. What speakers will it be driving,
3. How does the end user need the system to operate.

Audio levels:
1. Mic level: this is the smallest signal. It produces signals ranging
from few micro volts to a few milli volts. Typical nominal
operating level for a microphone output would be - 55dBV.
2. Line level : line level is ranging from several milli volts to
around 1 Volt with a nominal level of 0dBV.
3. Speaker level: speaker level is the strongest, ranging from
fraction of a Volt to several dozen of Volts depending on the
output rating of the amplifier.
Another important function of amplifier is providing the “gain”
needed to raise signals from mic or line level up to speaker
level.
Impedance: Impedance refers to the way device reacts to the
application of electric current.

The input impedance of an amplifier could range from 600 ohm

to 10,000 ohms.
The impedance of speaker may range from 4 to 16 ohms.

Interfacing between amplifier and speakers is done in two ways.

1. Small systems with one or two speakers will typically use

direct connection between the speaker and amplifier. This is
some times called low impedance operation, because the
impedance range from 4 to 16 ohms nominal.
2. Systems with more than two speakers usually use the
transformers at the amplifier and at each speaker to simplify
impedance matching and reduce the line loss. These systems
are called distributed line system, 70.7 Volts (or 25 Volts)
systems.
Microphone type selection
Microphone is a type of transducer.
Transducer : a device which converts energy from one from to a
another.
Microphone converts the sound energy into an electrical energy.
Different types of microphones have different ways of converting
energy but they all share one common item. This is called
“Diaphragm”.
Diaphragm is a thin piece of material which vibrates when it is
stuck by sound waves.
The link between the microphone’s diaphragm and the output
devices can be either wired or wireless. Wired microphones
are physically connected by a cable to the output device.
Wireless microphones, which are more portable, must come
with both a transmitter and a compatible receiver.
Types of microphones:
Microphones can be categorized based on the type of conversion
technology they use.
1. Condenser microphones
2. Dynamic microphones
3. Ribbon microphones
4. Carbon microphones
5. Piezoelectric microphones
6. Fiber optic microphones
1. Condenser Microphones:
Consists of two plates and the plates are biased with a fixed
charge (Q). The voltage maintained across the capacitor
plates changes with the vibrations in the air, according to the
equation (C=Q/V)
where Q = charge in coulombs,
C = Capacitance
V = Potential difference in volts.
The capacitance of the plates is inversely proportional to the
distance between them for a parallel plate capacitor. The
assembly of fixed and movable plates is called an “element”
or “capsule”.
The voltage across the capacitor varies above and below the bias
voltage. The voltage difference between the bias and the
capacitor is seen across the series resistor. The voltage across
the resistor is amplified for performance or recording.
Characteristics of Microphones:
The most important factor in choosing a microphone is how it
sounds in the required application. The following issues must be
considered:

1. Dynamic Range : The dynamic range of a microphone can be defined as the

range between the lowest level and the highest level that the microphone can
handle. The dynamic range of a microphone is, to a large extent, directly linked
to its sensitivity.
In general, a microphone with a high sensitivity will be able to measure very
low levels, but not very high levels, and a microphone with low sensitivity will
be able to measure very high levels, but not very low levels.

The sensitivity of a microphone is determined mainly by the size of the

microphone and the tension of its diaphragm. A large microphone, with a loose
diaphragm, will have a high sensitivity and a small microphone, with a stiff
diaphragm, will have a low sensitivity.
Upper limit of dynamic range

The highest levels that can be measured are limited by the amount of
movement allowed for the diaphragm before it comes into contact with
the microphone’s back plate.
As the level of the sound pressure on a microphone increases, the
deflection of the diaphragm will accordingly be greater and greater until, at
some point, the diaphragm strikes the back plate inside the body of the
microphone. This is ultimately at the highest level the microphone can
measure.

Lower limit of dynamic range

The thermal agitation of air molecules is sufficient for a microphone to
generate a very small output signal, even in absolutely quiet conditions.
This "thermal noise" lies normally at around 5 µV and will be superimposed
on any acoustically-excited signal detected by the microphone. Because of
this, no acoustically-excited signal below the level of the thermal noise can
be measured.
2. Directional Response:
Microphones are designed to have a specific directional response
pattern, described by a so-called ‘polar diagram’. The polar diagram
is a form of two-dimensional contour map, showing the magnitude
of the microphone’s output at different angles of incidence of a
sound wave. The distance of the polar plot from the center of the
graph (considered as the position of the microphone diaphragm) is
usually calibrated in decibels, with a nominal 0 dB being marked for
the response at zero degrees at 1 kHz. The further the plot is from
the center, the greater the output of the microphone at that angle.
a. Omni-directional: The simplest mic
design will pick up all sound, regardless of
its point of origin, and is thus known as an
Omni-directional microphone. They are
very easy to use and generally have good
to outstanding frequency response.

b. Bi-directional
It is not very difficult to produce a pickup
pattern that accepts sound striking the
front or rear of the diaphragm, but does
not respond to sound from the sides. This
is the way any diaphragm will behave if
sound can strike the front and back
equally. Frequency response is just as
good as an omni, at least for sounds that
are not too close to the microphone.
c. Cardioid
This pattern is popular for sound
reinforcement or recording concerts
where audience noise is a possible
problem. The concept is great, a mic that
picks up sounds it is pointed at. The reality
is different. The first problem is that
sounds from the back are not completely
rejected, but merely reduced. The second
problem, and a severe one, is that the
actual shape of the pickup pattern varies
with frequency. For low frequencies, this
is an omni-directional microphone.
Furthermore, the frequency response for
signals arriving from the back and sides
will be uneven; this adds an undesired
coloration to instruments at the edge of a
large ensemble, or to the reverberation of
the concert hall.
d. hyper-cardioid
A hyper-cardioid microphone is similar to
cardioid, but with a slightly larger
contribution leading to a tighter area of
front sensitivity and a smaller lobe of rear
sensitivity.

e. super-cardioid
A super-cardioid microphone is similar to
a hyper-cardioid, except there is more
front pickup and less rear pickup.
3. Maximum Sound Pressure Level : The highest sound pressure level
a mic’s electronics can handle before the onset of distortion.

4. Self Noise : Microphones produce a very small amount of current,

which makes sense when you consider just how light the moving parts must
be to accurately follow sound waves. To be useful for recording or other
electronic processes, the signal must be amplified by a factor of over a
thousand. Any electrical noise produced by the microphone will also be
amplified, so even slight amounts are intolerable. Noise also includes
unwanted pickup of mechanical vibration through the body of the
microphone

5. Sensitivity : This is a measure of how much electrical output is

produced by a given sound.

6. Impedance: This is the output impedance of a Microphone. Can be

categorized into three categories based on the impedance.
Low impedance microphone : Impedance < 600 Ohms
Medium impedance microphone : 600 Ohms < Impedance < 10,000 Ohms
High impedance microphone : Impedance < 600 Ohms

7. Frequency Response:
A flat frequency response has been the main goal of microphone
companies for the last three or four decades. In the fifties,
mics were so bad that console manufacturers began adding
equalizers to each input to compensate. This effort has now
paid off to the point were most professional microphones are
respectably flat, at least for sounds originating in front. The
major exceptions are mics with deliberate emphasis at certain
frequencies that are useful for some applications. This is
another part of the microphone mystique. Problems in
frequency response are mostly encountered with sounds
originating behind the mic, as discussed in the next section.
Thank you for your attention