Unconventional

Reservoirs

Stephen A. Sonnenberg
Colorado School of Mines
Unconventional Reservoirs
• Outline
• General comments
• Conventional and Continuous Accumulations
• Basin center concept
• Tight gas
• Shale gas
• CBM
• Tight Oil
• Bituminous Sands
• Oil Shale
• Halo Oil
• Gas hydrates
Unconventional Characteristics
• Recoverable reserves are huge

• Many resources around the world

• Very capital intensive

• Typically low recovery factors

• Environmental problems can be great

What Makes it Unconventional
1. Quality of the reservoir (very tight)
2. Type of trap (continuous)
3. Lithology of reservoir (source bed = reservoir in some cases)
4. State the gas or oil is in (sorbed, tar, solid, kerogen)
5. Physical laws that control occurrence
6. Viscosity and permeability
7. Technology required to produce/extract

In general, the gas or oil is difficult to produce for some reason.

Loucks et al., Picopore Nanopore Micropore Mesopore
2012 (pore dia.,)
Hartman et al., Micro- Meso- Macro-
1999 Nanopore Megapore
pore pore pore
(pore throat rd.)

Tight
Oil & Gas
Pore Sizes

Nelson, 2009
Hartman and Beaumont, 1999
 Viscosity (cp) Permeability md
Tight Gas 0.01
Reservoirs Poor
<0.1
0.1
Poor
< 0.1
Tight Oil
Reservoirs
Poor – Fair
0.1-15
10
Good - Very Good
15 – 1,000
100
Good - Very Good
Heavy Oil
50 – 1,000
&
1,000
Tar Sand
Reservoirs Good
10,000 50 – 250+
 1 microdarcy
1E-06 1E-05
1 nanodarcy

Cander, 2012
 Sorption
• Adsorption is a process when a
gas or liquid solute accumulates
on the surface of a solid forming
a molecular or atomic film (the
adsorbate)
• Absorption is a physical or
chemical phenomenon or a
process in which atoms,
molecules, or ions enter some
bulk phase – gas, liquid, or solid
material. The molecules are
taken up by the volume, not the
surface.
 Three Principal Types of
Unconventional Reservoir Systems
Primarily a
Sorbed Gas Reservoir

•Deep Piceance Basin

•Black Warrior Basin
•Alberta Deep Basin (?)
•Drunkard’s Wash
•Wilcox Sands
Largely a
Partly (?) a
Sorbed Gas
Sorbed Gas
Reservoir
Reservoir

•Bossier Shale (?)

•2nd White Specks (?)

Modified From Jeff Levine

Types of Unconventional
• Tight Gas – low P&P needs fracking

• Shale Gas – low P&P needs fracking

• Coal Bed Methane – needs dewatering, special drilling and

completion methods

• Tight Oil – low P&P needs fracking

• Tar Sands – high P&P, needs heating

• Oil Shale – immature kerogen, needs cooking

• Gas Hydrates – needs technology

• THUS, Unconventionals need technology!

Buoyancy
Buoyancy
• Buoyancy is the tendency for a body (or a
drop of immiscible fluid) to float or rise
when submerged in a fluid of greater
density.
• Where two immiscible fluids (oil and water)
occur together, they create a buoyancy
pressure that is a function of the density
difference between the two fluids and the
length of the less-dense fluid column.

AAPG wiki
 Migration
Capillary Entry Pressure Controls on
Hydrocarbon Emplacement

Capillary Entry Pressure

Seal
Pc = 2/r

Interfacial tension 
Reservoir Pore throat radius r (seal)

Buoyancy Pressure

Pb= h(w-o)g
Petroleum density hc
Water density w
Buoyancy Pressure Petroleum column height h
g = 0.433 = slope or static fluid pressure
X 0.433 (slope or static fluid pressure
gradient)
Schowalter, 1979
 Controls on Hydrocarbon Emplacement

Capillary Pressure Buoyancy Pressure

Interfacial tension  Petroleum density hc

Contact angle  Water density w
Pore throat radius r Petroleum column height h
“Buoyancy” related
accumulations

Non buoyancy
related?
 UNCONVENTIONAL/
CONTINUOUS CONVENTIONAL
RESERVOIRS RESERVOIRS

Reservoir Trap
Microbial
Rock (oil fields)
Gas Zone
Conventional
 Structural
Oil Shale  Stratigraphic
 Combination
Tar / Bituminous
Source
Rock Sand Unconventional
 Coalbed Methane
Oil Window
Ro 0.6 – 1.3  Shale Gas
Gas Window  Tight
Ro 1.3 – 3.+ Sand/Carbonate
Overpressured (‘continuous’) Gas
Cell
Tight Gas SS  Shallow Basin
Methane (biogenic)
Hi-rate HC Generation 8000 ft  Tight Oil
4000 ft  Oil Shale
Base HC Generation
 Tar Sands
0
Over-Pressured Cell 0 100 200 300 miles

Modified from Magoon, 1988

Forces of Expulsion
 Forces of Expulsion

The Driving Forces Result From Changes in

Volume as Kerogen Matures
Overpressures Generated by
Hydrocarbon Generation
 This large volume change in tight
rock creates
FORCES OF EXPULSION
(Pressure Driven)

Very different from the FORCES OF BOUYANCY (Density Driven)

we used to for Conventional Systems
 Impact of Organic Richness on Development of a
Continuous Oil-Saturated Network
IMMATURE ZONE IMMATURE ZONE
Φ=15% Φ=15%
So=0 So=0
Ro = 0.40% Water expulsion
Water expulsion
(compaction) (compaction)

ONSET OF OIL FORM. ZONE

ONSET OF OIL FORM. ZONE
HC Generated invade
HC Generated invade
Ro = 0.65% Surrounding porosity
Surrounding porosity
Φ=10%
Φ=10%
So=20%
So=20%
No oil expulsion
No oil expulsion

MIDDLE OR END OF OIL

MIDDLE OR END OF OIL FORMATION ZONE
FORMATION ZONE Φ=8%
Φ=8%
Ro = 0.90%
So=20%
So=20% Primary migration is still
Primary migration is possible not possible
1mm
Kerogen-rich source rock Kerogen-poor source rock

after Katz, 2012 after Durand, 1988

MICROFRACTURES
Forces of Expulsion Does Four Important Things
• Initially creates an over-pressured compartment
• Drives remaining water out of system (dehydrates
the system)
• Forces oil and condensate into very tight pore
space resulting in low water saturations
• Creates extensional fractures
 PRIMARY MIGRATION
Exact mechanism not proven but modeling of rock properties has suggested that
internal pressure builds up due to inorganic and organic transformations, leading to
formation of microfractures, and eventual expulsion of oil and gas.

Primary migration is an inefficient process and does not act equally on all of the
chemical components of oils, so composition changes have been observed between
source rock extracts and expelled oils.
 Petrographic Test for Onset of Oil
Generation

immature unheated Onset

125 μm
(20μm thick)

kerogen-bitumen
300oC/72h
Hydrous Pyrolysis of
Woodford Shale Cores 125 μm

bitumen-oil 352oC/72h
Lewan (1987)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lISNwF5tMXM
Conceptual Burial History of
Unit – Volume of Oil - Source

Modified from Momper, 1981

Technology to
Produce
“Frac” Technology Advancements KEY
for Tight-Gas Reservoir Development
Current level of technology.
 Concept of Resource Pyramid

High quality reservoirs High

Low

Level of Current level of technology or Resource

technology quality
economic basement
required

Low quality reservoirs

High
Low
Province
Resource Size

SAS, 04
Resource Plays
 The Resource Pyramid
Conventional Reservoirs:
Small Volumes,
Easy to Develop

Oil Gas

Increasing Product Price

Improving Technology
Unconventional Reservoirs:
Large Volumes, Tight
Tight
Hard to Develop Oil; Shale Oil
“Resource Plays”
Gas Sands;
Heavy Oil;
CBM;
Bituminous
Gas Shales
Sands;
Halo Plays
Huge
Volumes,
Difficult Oil Shale Gas Hydrates
to Develop

Province Resource Size

Resource Plays
• Cover a large areal extent
• Reservoirs may be single horizon or multiple
horizons (vertically stacked)
• Pervasive hydrocarbon saturation
• Reservoirs generally of low reservoir quality
• Helps to have abnormal pressure
• “Predictable and repeatable” performance
 “Resource Plays”
• Large resource known in-place
 Predictable, repeatable
 Large areal or vertical extent
 Low decline rates
 Long life and field growth history
• Technology driven, price sensitive
 Unlocks reserves
 Drives down costs
• Operations
 Opportunity to improve recovery factor
 Opportunity to improve efficiency and reduce costs
 Cost and pace control
• Manufacturing machine for oil or gas!
 Assembly-line development
SAS, 04
 Geologic
Considerations
What factors influence productivity?

Theloy, 2013
Why not just
Shale Drilling a horizontal well?
and Completions
Heavy-Oil Deposits

Demaison, 1977
http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/primer.html
 Petroleum and
other Liquid Production

http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/executive_summary.cfm
 Gas Production

http://www.eia.gov/energy_in_brief/article/about_shale_gas.cfm
Hubbert’s Prediction for US crude oil production (1956) and
actual lower-48 states production through 2014

By Plazak - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=42670844

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hubbert_US_Lower_48_Gas_Prediction_-_1962.png
Berman, 2015
Berman, 2015
 1/8/2019

https://www.oil-price.net/
Petroleum Systems
The Petroleum System

Keys:
• Source
• Seal
• Maturity
• Expulsion
• Migration
• Reservoir
• Trap
• Preservation

Modified from Dickinson, 1974;

Meissner, 1981
The Petroleum System
• A source rock and all the genetically related
petroleum accumulations
• Elements:
• Source rock
• Reservoir rock
• Seal rock
• Overburden rock
• Processes:
• Generation
• Migration
• Entrapment
• Preservation
The Petroleum System Approach

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Trap
Reservoir (oil fields)
Surface Rock

Microbial
Gas zone Source
Rock
Oil and Wet Gas
Zone
Dry Gas
Zone

Onset of thermal generation 8000 ft

4000 ft
Onset of dry gas generation

0
0 100 200 300 miles

Modified from Magoon, 1988

The Petroleum System Approach
Continuous Conventional
Accumulations Accumulations

Zero edge
of
reservoir
rock

Oil & wet gas generation zone

Dry gas generation zone

Migration pathways

Modified from Magoon, 1988

 UNCONVENTIONAL/ CONVENTIONAL
CONTINUOUS RESERVOIRS
RESERVOIRS
Trap
Microbial Reservoir (oil fields)
Gas Zone Rock
Conventional
 Structural
Oil Shale  Stratigraphic
 Combination
Tar
Source
Rock
Sand Unconventional
 Coalbed Methane
Oil Window
Ro 0.6 – 1.3  Shale Gas/Oil
Gas Window  Tight
Ro 1.3 – 3.+ Sand/Carbonate
Overpressured (‘continuous’)
Cell
Tight Gas SS  Shallow Basin
Methane (biogenic)
Hi-rate HC Generation 8000 ft  Oil Shale
4000 ft  Tar Sands
Base HC Generation

0
Over-Pressured Cell 0 100 200 300 miles

Modified from Magoon, 1988

CONVENTIONAL vs.
UNCONVENTIONAL
RESOURCES
Conventional and Unconventional Traps
Conventional
Structural
Stratigraphic
Unconventional
Coalbed Methane
Shale Gas
Tight
Sand/Carbonate
(‘continuous’)
Shallow Basin
Methane (biogenic)
Oil Shale
Tar Sands
Hydrates

Modified from Pollastro, 2001

 UNCONVENTIONAL RESOURCES
(Defined by nature of occurrence– Not by commerciality)
Brings into question long-held principles that include:
•Nature of seal
•Buoyancy
•Pore Pressure
•Trap
•Reservoir quality
•Source rock
Elements and Processes
• Source rock
• Conventional: discrete source with >0.5% OM
• Unconventional: can be reservoir as well as source
• Reservoir Rock
• Conventional: high quality with good porosity and
permeability
• Unconventional: low quality with poor porosity and
permeability
• Seal
• Conventional: lithologic (shale, evaporite, etc.)
• Unconventional: lithologic and nonlithologic
Elements and Processes, (cont.)
• Trap
• Conventional: structural and stratigraphic
• Unconventional: all of above plus non-structural
(pervasive)
• Nature of accumulation
• Conventional: discrete
• Unconventional: pervasive
• Fluid buoyancy
• Conventional: yes
• Unconventional: yes and no
• Gas origin
• Conventional: mainly thermal
• Unconventional: thermal and biogenic
Source Beds
Source Beds
Kerogen (Organic Matter )Type
Oil or Gas Prone Organic Matter
• Sapropelic:
• Mainly proteins and lipids
• Oil Prone
• term used in marine geology to describe dark-colored
sediments that are rich in organic matter. Organic
carbon concentrations in sapropels commonly exceed
2% in weight.
• Oil prone organic matter derived from mainly marine or
lacustrine algae; but also leaves, spores, pollen

• Humic:
• Mainly carbohydrates and lignins
• Tends to produce coal and gas
• Land plant material, plant cell, and wall material made up of
lignin, cellulose, and aromatic tannins
Kerogen Types

TOC 2.12 WT.% TOC .38 WT.%

Armentrout AAPG slides

Type of Organic Matter is Important

• Ohio (Dev.) – Type II

• Antrim (Dev.) – Type II
• New Albany (Dev.) – Type II
• Marcellus (Dev.) – Type II
• Woodford (Dev.) – Type II
• Barnett (Miss.) – Type II
• Fayetteville (Miss.) – Type II
• Haynesville (Jur.) – Type II
• Niobrara/Mancos (Cret.) – Type II
• Eagle Ford (Cret.) – Type II
• Lewis (Cret.) – Type II
Tucker, 2001
Depositional Setting:
Lower and Upper Bakken Black Mudstone

Modified from Smith and Bustin, 1996; Meissner et al., 1984

Organic Richness = Production – (Dilution + Destruction)
Indicators of Anoxia

• Well-laminated or relatively
unburrowed sediments
• Elevated total organic
carbon contents
• Preserved local (aquatic)
organisms
• Black color
• Elevated trace element
values (Mo, Ni, Cu, V, U)
• Syngenetic pyrite
Tribovillard et al., 2006
Jarvie et al., 2007
Source Rock
Maturity
Critical Ro Values

From Dan Jarvie, Humble Geochemical Services

 Process of Organic Maturation: Deeper Burial

Gas

• With increasing temperature and pressure, organic matter (OM) is converted to oil and gas,
and eventually oil is cracked to gas as well

From Dan Jarvie, Humble Geochemical Services

Source Rock Maturity
 Importance of Thermal Maturity

• The organic material must be cooked…but not

overcooked to be of greatest value!

$100 per acre $2,500 per acre $10 per acre

• We want all liquid HC’s converted to methane, but we

don’t want methane to be replaced by CO2

Concept and photos from Terry Engelder

World Source Rocks
Prolific Source Rocks on Earth’s Surface

Demaison, 1993
Concentration of oil reserves
• Two major cycles of source beds
• Paleozoic cycle: ~13% of reserves of conventional
oil
• Jurassic to Tertiary cycle 85% of worlds reserves
• Prolific source rocks during Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods are responsible for ~70% of world’s conventional
crude (180 to 85 m.y.)
• Heavy oils mainly in cycle 2
Tissot and Welte, 1984
Tissot and Welte, 1984
Tissot and Welte, 1984
Tissot and Welte, 1984
Tissot and Welte, 1984
Overpressuring by
Hydrocarbon
Generation
Overpressures Generated by
Hydrocarbon Generation
Overpressuring in Rockies Basins

INCREASING THERMAL METAMORPHISM

“MATURE”

VOLUME OF GENERATED
FLUID HYDROCARBONS

VOLUME OF ORIGINAL
UNMETAMORPHOSED VOLUME OF METAMORPHOSED
“IMMATURE ORGANIC ORGANIC MATERIAL
MATERIAL (KEROGEN)

ASSUMES GENERATED HYDROCARBONS ARE

RETAINED IN SYSTEM & CONVERT TO
STABLE SPECIES

Modified from Spencer, 1987 and Meissner, 1980

Conceptual Burial History of
Unit – Volume of Oil - Source

Modified from Momper, 1981

 Pressure
Compartments
Pressure Compartments

Modified from Ortoleva, 1994

Dehydrated deep
basins
Where Did All the Water Go?
• Compaction dewatering
• Hydrogenation of kerogen
• Conversion to CO2
• Other reactions
• Displaced from reservoir
• System dehydrated
• Pervasive hydrocarbon saturation
Water Loss Curves (Burst, 1969
Meissner, 1997
Sweetspots
“Sweet Spots”

Teufel et al., 2004

 Depositional
Environment

“Sweet
Spot”

Diagenesis Fractures
Pyrolysis
Rock-Eval & SRA Pyrolysis
• Pyrolysis is defined as the heating of OM in the
absence of oxygen
• In Rock-Eval & SRA pyrolysis, pulverized samples
are gradually heated under an inert atmosphere
• Heating distills the free organic compounds (bitumen),
then cracks pyrolytic products from the insoluble OM
(Kerogen)
Operating Conditions
• Samples of whole rock up to about 100 mg are
pyrolyzed at 300oC, followed by programmed
pyrolysis at 25oC/min to 550oC, both in a helium
atmosphere
• Each analysis takes about 20 minutes (allowing
time to cool the oven)
Schematic diagram of a Rock-Eval pyrolyzer (Waples, 1985)
 Pyrolysis

• Heating whole rock or kerogen in the absence of

oxygen
• Pyrolysis is not combustion
• Pyrolysis is thermal breakdown
• Pyrolysis mimics hydrocarbon generation in nature
by substituting higher temperature for longer time
Measuring Organic Parameters:
Pyrolysis

132
 Rock-Eval Parameters
• S1 peak is produced by free hydrocarbons
thermally distilled from the rock
• S2 peak is produced by hydrocarbons pyrolyzed
from the kerogen
• S3 peak is produced by carbon dioxide pyrolyzed
from the kerogen
• Tmax is the temperature at which maximum
evolution of S2 hydrocarbons occurs
• Production index = S1/(S1+S2)
 Pyrolysis = Thermal Cracking
• Source-rock potential is measured by pyrolyzing
rock samples in an inert atmosphere
• The kerogen cracks to form volatile hydrocarbons
which are quantitatively measured as S2
• S2 = residual source-rock potential
0.5

Peters, 1986
HI = (S2 / TOC) X 100
OI = (S3 / TOC) X 100

Peters, 1986
Peters And Cassa, 1994
Peters and Cassa, 1994
 HI = S2 / TOC
OI = S3 / TOC

Classification of the various types of kerogen by Rock-Eval Pyrolysis (Waples, 1987)

HI = S2 / TOC
OI = S3 / TOC

Peters, 1986
Waples, 1985
Oil-Generating Ability of Macerals is
Variable
HI = 667(H/C) – 570(O/C) - 333
Waples, 1985
Changes in pyrograms, production index and Tmax with depth or thermal
maturity for core samples from the Tertiary of West Africa (from Waples,
1987)
 Van Krevelen HI/OI

1000

Type I
900

800

700 0-4000
Type II
HI (mg HC/gm OC)

4001-6000
600 6001-8000
8001-10000
500
10001-12000
400 TYPE I
TYPE II
300 TYPE III

200
Type III
100

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
OI (mg CO2/gm OC)
 HI versus Tmax

1000

900

Type I
800

700

Elm Coulee V
600
Hydrogen Index

Elm Coulee W
0-4000
Type II
500 4001-6000
6001-8000
8001-10000
400
10001-12000

Tmax/HI 300

425\550 onset 200

100
437\300 peak Type III
0
400 410 420 430 440 450 460
Tmax
Kerogen Quality Plot

160

140
Type II: Oil Prone
Usually Marine
120
Type I: Oil Prone
Usually Lacustrine
100 Increasing Maturity 0-4000
4001-6000
S2

80 6001-8000
Type II/III:
Oil/Gas Prone 8001-10000
60 10001-12000

40
Type III:
Gas Prone
20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
TOC (wt%)
 TOC
0 5 10 15 20 25
400

410

420 0-4000
4001-6000
TMax

430 6001-8000
8001-10000

440 10001-12000

450

460
 0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35
Production Index

0-4000
0.3
4001-6000
0.25 6001-8000

0.2 8001-10000
10001-12000
0.15
Oil Zone
0.1
Immature
0.05

0
380 400 420 440 460 480 500
Tmax
 S1/TOC
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00
0

2000

Webster, 1984
4000
Elm Coulee V
Elm Coulee W
Depth

Price, 1984
6000
Koch
Peterson
Pullam & Fleckton Mertz
Waswick
Braaflat (S-P)
8000
Slater Foghorn (EC)
High Geothermal Gradient
Dobrinski
7650 ft
10000 Kennedy

Peck Low Geothermal Gradient (10500)

12000
Source Rock Analyzer

SRA NDIR detector (S3 & S4)

The Source Rock Analyser (SRA) quantitatively determines the amount of free hydrocarbons (S1), the residual generative
potential of the rock (S2), the amount of oxygen compounds decomposed during pyrolysis (S3) and the organic carbon remaining
after the S2 peak (S4). The SRA also determines tTemp, the temperature recorded at the time of the maximum S2 peak. By
summing the S1, S2 and S4 peaks, the SRA determines TOC
 Summary of Method

• Rock material pulverized and passed through 40-

mesh sieve
• Approximately 60 – 100 mg (depending on
richness) of pulverized rock accurately weighed into
an SRA crucible and placed in autosampler
• SRA pedestal is raised, putting sample into
preheated oven
 Summary of Method

• Sample is held in the isothermal oven until 3

minutes has elapsed, crucible temperature is 340°C
• S1- During isothermal heating, free hydrocarbons
are volatilized and detected by FID detector;
reported as milligrams (mg) of HC per gram of rock
• S3- Oxygen-containing compounds (e.g. carbonyl &
hydroxyl) are liberated and measured by the NDIR
cell until crucible reaches 400oC. This is reported as
milligrams (mg) of CO2 per gram of rock
 Summary of Method

• After isothermal period, temperature is ramped at

25oC/minute until crucible reaches 640oC
• S2- Between 340oC and 640oC, organic
hydrocarbons are generated from the pyrolytic
degradation of the kerogen in the rock; roughly
equivalent to the remaining generative potential of
the rock
• S2 reported as milligrams (mg) of HC per gram of
rock
 Summary of Method

• Oven cooled to 580oC, carrier lines purged with air

for 5 minutes; displaces all helium from system
• Oven held at isothermal conditions at 580oC while
the sample is purged with oxygen to oxidize the
remaining kerogen material
• Carbon monoxide (CO) and CO2 is measured with
the IR cells to determine S4
 Calculations

• HI = (S2/TOC) X 100
• OI = (S3/TOC) X 100
• PI = S1/(S1+S2)
• TOC=[S4+(0.83(S1+S2))]/10
Mudrocks
 Mudrocks

• 2/3 of all sedimentary rocks, but poorly

understood:

• not very resistant

• fine-grained

• clays change composition

Mudrock Sequence Stratigraphy
Mowry outcrop, courtesy of Zach Hollon (2013)
Crowsnest Pass
Exshaw

Photo by Rich Aram, COP

 Deadwood Canyon Ranch
43-28H

Black shale facies

(10,077 – 10,077 ft)

Facies E
U. Bakken (10,077 – 10,084 ft)

M. Bakken Facies C
(10,102 – 10,119 ft)

Facies D
(10,084 – 10,102 ft)

L. Bakken
Facies A
(10,142 – 10,146 ft)

Black shale facies

Facies B (10,146 – 10,192 ft)
(10,119 – 10,142 ft)
Utica Shale
Upper Bakken Shale
Lower Bakken Shale
Sharon Springs 1359
Niobrara 1447
Passey et al., 2012
 Mudrocks
• Class of fine-grained sedimentary rocks
• Includes: siltstone, claystone, mudstone,
slate, and shale
• Most particles less than 0.0625 mm
 MUDROCKS
> 50% of grains less than 62.5 microns
Silt:clay
2/3 1/3
ratio

mudstone claystone

siltstone

mudshale clayshale

After May, 2016

 MUDROCKS
Type Min grain Max grain

Claystone 0 m 4 m

Mudstone 0 m 64 m

Shale 0 m 64 m

Siltstone 4 m 64 m
Adapted from Lazar et al., 2015
Average “shale” compositions
Average “shale” compositions

Adapted from Scholle, 2015

 Mudrock Reservoirs
• Siliciclastic mudrocks
• Biogenic quartz (radiolarite, diatomite, porcellanite, chert)
• Biogenic quartz + clay
• Detrital quartz + clay
• Carbonate mudrocks
• Detrital carbonate (micrograinstones)
• Biogenic carbonate (chalk)
• Biogenic carbonate + clay (marl)
• Dolomite
• Hybrid reservoirs
• Siliciclastic + carbonate mixtures
• Interlaminated mudstones-siltstone/sandstone
• phosphorite
 Biogenic Sediments
• Defined as having at least 30% skeletal remains of
marine organisms
• Cover 62% of deep ocean
• Calcareous or siliceous oozes
 Diatoms

Radiolaria

Diatoms

Distribution of main types of marine sediments (after Davies & Gorsline, 1976)
Mudrock microfossils Scholle, 2016
 Distribution and Accumulation

• Three factors
• Rates of production of biogenic particles in surface
waters
• Nutrient supply and temperature
• Dissolution rates of those particles in the water column
after they reach the bottom
• Chemistry of deep ocean, bottom and interstitial waters
• Rates of dilution by terrigenous sediments
 Carbonate Oozes
• Tiny (< 10 microns) calcareous plates produced by
phytoplankton of the marine algal group
• Foraminiferal ooze is dominated by the tests of
planktic protists
• Most foraminiferal tests are sand sized (> 61 microns in
diameter)
• Oozes are bimodal in particle-size distribution
because they are made of sand size foraminiferal
tests and mud-sized coccolith plates
 Siliceous Oozes
• Two major contributors
• Golden-brown algae known as diatoms construct a shell
called a frustule out of opalline silica
• Radiolaria – large group of marine protists also construct
opalline silica skeletons
• Silica is undersaturated throughout most of the
world's oceans
• Siliceous sediments are most common beneath
upwelling zones
• Accumulation rates of siliceous oozes can reach 4-5
cm/1,000 years in these areas
Mudrock Deposition
 Shales in Ancient Basins
Shelf-to-basin transition
Deltas prograde onto oceanic crust
• Most shales associated with prodelta muds
and medial and distal turbidites

Potter et al., 1980

 Shales in Ancient Basins
Deltas prograding onto craton (foreland basins)
• Shale section best developed on delta front and
slope environments

Potter et al., 1980

 Shales in Ancient Basins
Cratonic deltas
• Produces a thin, widespread deposit within which
very thin marine shales, one to a few meters thick

Potter et al., 1980

 Shales in Ancient Basins
Carbonate rims
• Mud supplied to the trough most longitudinally

Potter et al., 1980

 Shales in Ancient Basins
Rifts
• Shale fill is maximal, when rift is largely below sea
level, climate is wet, and supply is by small muddy,
marginal rivers

Potter et al., 1980

 Shales in Ancient Basins
Island arcs
• Small to moderate sized, tectonically very active
basins mostly with local supply from volcanic
terrains

Potter et al., 1980

 Shales in Ancient Basins
Deep oceans
• Very slow sedimentation rates from long-traveled
suspension, some of which is from air

Potter et al., 1980

Inverted Systems
“Inverted Systems”
Eastern Giddings Field
Adapted from Camp, 2013
 The Inverted Fluid System

Vaca Muerta, Neuquén Basin, Argentina

Eagle Ford, Gulf Coast Soldo, 2015
Barnett Shale,
Fort Worth Basin

Austin Chalk, Meckel et al., 1993

Bazhenov Shale, West Siberian

Brooks, 2018 (Linkenin) Basin
 Vaca Muerta Petroleum System
A A’

Mitchum and Uliana, 1987

A Vaca Muerta, Neuquén

Basin, Argentina
Soldo, 2015

A’
El Trapial Area, Vaca Muerta

URTeC 2154603
Crousse et al., 2015
Pore Sizes
Loucks et al., Picopore Nanopore Micropore Mesopore
2012 (pore dia.,)
Hartman et al., Micro- Meso- Macro-
1999 Nanopore Megapore
pore pore pore
(pore throat rd.)

Tight
Oil & Gas
Pore Sizes

Nelson, 2009
Hartman and Beaumont, 1999
Loucks et al., 2012
Mechanical
Stratigraphy
Corbett and Friedman, 1987
 An example of multi-scale tectonic fracture development
from Gross (2009).

Distributed Fractures (Bed Fracture Corridors

Contained) Mid-Scale Fractures
Nelson, 2010
Fractures or Joints
Example of mechanical layering in sedimentary rocks
Laminated mudstones (brown) deform in shear mode; porcellanites (gray) deform in opening-mode.
Monterey Formation, Arroyo Burro Beach, Santa Barbara; From Michael Gross, 2017
“fault-fracture mesh”

Sibson, 1996
From Michael Gross, 2017
Courtesy of M. Gross (2009) Nelson, 2010
 Interbedded sandstone (white) and limestone

222
Nelson, 2010 Lorenz & Cooper (2010)
Sharon Springs Member, Pierre Shale

Niobrara Formation
A Chalk

B Chalk

C Chalk

D chalky marl
Fort Hays
Codell SS
Carlile Formation

Bridge Creek LS.

Greenhorn
Formation
Hartland Shale

Lincoln LS.

Graneros
Formation

D SS & Huntsman
Mowry Formation

J SS

Skull Creek
 Fort Hays

“BRITTLE”
Chalk
Sweet
Spot

Codell Marls

Carlile “DUCTILE”

Sharon
Springs
Faults and Fractures
Mowry outcrop, courtesy of Zach Hollon (2013)
Origin of Fractures
• Tectonic
• Folding and Faulting
• Wrench faults
• Solution of evaporites
• Regional Stress Field
• Far-field compression
• Regional epeirogenic uplift
• Diagenetic
• High Fluid Pressure
• Maturation of source rocks
• Compaction and dewatering
Gross and Eyal (2007)
Zahm and Hennings, 2009
 “strongest material”

“strong but brittle” “most deformable”

 Ductile and Brittle Material
• Brittle materials have a small or large region of elastic behavior but only a small
region of ductile behavior before they fracture.
• Ductile materials have a small region of elastic behavior and a large region of
ductile behavior before they fracture.
Force Folds, Faults, and Fractures
Deformation
• Deformation: a general term for the process of
folding, faulting, shearing, compression, or
extension of the rocks as a result of various Earth’s
forces
• Definition: D = RBT + RBR +  where:
• D = deformation; RBT = rigid body translation; RBR
= rigid body rotation;  = distortion (strain)
Structures and Associated Fractures

From Austin Chalk Outcrops

Friedman et al., 1992

 Regional Horizontal
Stress Orientation

Generalized stress map, western US. Arrows represent direction of either least
(outward directed) or greatest (inward direction) principal horizontal stress
(modified from Zoback and Zoback, 1980)
Shmax Shmax

Regional Fractures
Systematic and Non-systematic
Modified from Lorenz et al., 1991, Nelson 2010
 Regional Fractures Southern Powder River Basin

Predicted open fracture orientation based on fast

shear-wave direction rotated from seismic line

Shmax from borehole breakout

Predicted orientations
Laubach, 1992

Boreholes oriented NNW-SSE

Lineament orientations Adapted from

Parks and Gale, 1996
Fracture strike from FMS
Regional Uplift
http://science.jrank.org/pages/48171/stress-field-Earth.html
Beef Fractures
Beef Fractures
• Bedding-parallel, calcite-filled fractures named by
quarrymen “beef” fractures based on their
resemblance to the fibrous fascia seen in beef
(Cobbold and Rodrigues, 2007)
• Organic-rich, calcareous shales commonly host
these features.
 Beef fractures in Upper Cretaceous
Niobrara core slab.

Core slabs from the Upper

Jurassic Vaca Muerta showing
calcitic beef fractures (green
arrows) and sub-vertical calcite-
filled fracture (red arrows).

Beef fractures in basal Mississippian Bakken

(Kreis et al., 2006)
“Beef Fractures” in shales
correlate with:
1) Organic-richness
2) Thermal maturity
3) Overpressuring
4) Mechanical anisotropy
5) Calcareous material in the shales (e.g.,
coccoliths in the Mesozoic examples)
Mechanisms for forming Beef
1. Crack-seal: Vein calcite crystals infill pre-existing
fractures
2. Force of crystallization: Crystal growth exerts stress
3. Hydrocarbon expulsion creating fractures due to
volume expansion and increase in pressure by
petroleum expulsion from kerogen (e.g., Momper,
1978; Meissner, 1978; Lewan, 1987)
Haynesville
• Gas production & pressure gradient 0.9 psi/ft
• Depths between 10,000 and 13,500 ft and ranges in
thickness from 200 to 350 ft
• Natural fractures in the Haynesville exist as
bedding-parallel veins of fibrous calcite (beef
fractures), which are pervasive within the highly
overpressured and anisotropic intervals
• Commonly misinterpreted as Inoceramus shell
fragments
Bedding-parallel veins of fibrous calcite (Beef’s) in the Haynesville.
(Core sample Sample 10H #1, Red River Ph., LA)
 Schematic of the observed Beef fractures and calcite-filled vertical fractures in
the core. Red shaded intervals are those with the highest beef fracture abundance.
 LJE.x-1010 in the
Loma Jarillosa Este
block of the Vaca
Muerta, Argentina

Core slab piece showing the three fracture types: 1) non-

mineralized, closed bedding-parallel fractures (light brown
lineaments), 2) bitumen-filled, bedding-parallel fractures
(black) and 3) bedding-parallel, calcite-filled fractures (white).
Jamison, 2013
Suggested Process for Forming
“Beef Fractures”
1. Force of petroleum expulsion creates sites of
opportunities in the form of bedding-parallel
fractures;
2. Thin film of supersaturated solution in-fills these
sites of opportunities;
3. Mineral crystals utilize the site of opportunities
and use them as sites for precipitation;
4. Crystal growth exerts pressure creating force of
crystallization;
5. Depending on the aspect ratio of fracture, the
force of crystallization extends the fracture forming
the "beef" with prismatic calcite crystals growing
perpendicular to the fracture walls.

Duhailan et al., 2015

“Diagenetic Fractures”
i.e., not tectonic
Overpressuring in Rockies Basins

INCREASING THERMAL METAMORPHISM

“MATURE”

VOLUME OF GENERATED
FLUID HYDROCARBONS

VOLUME OF ORIGINAL
UNMETAMORPHOSED VOLUME OF METAMORPHOSED
“IMMATURE ORGANIC ORGANIC MATERIAL
MATERIAL (KEROGEN)

ASSUMES GENERATED HYDROCARBONS ARE

RETAINED IN SYSTEM & CONVERT TO
STABLE SPECIES

Modified from Spencer, 1987 and Meissner, 1980

 0

1000

2000

Pierre
3000 Shale

4000

5000 Sussex
(Terry)
Shannon
6000 Migration
(Hygiene)

Paths Sharon Springs Mbr

Niobrara
7000 Codell
Benton Gp.
Muddy J SS
Source Dakota SS
8000 Rock

9000

10000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
PRESSURE PSI
Weimer, 1995
Microfracture-induced hydrocarbon-phase migration during oil generation.
A. Initial stage prior to oil generation, source rock is water-wet.
B. Oil generation has occurred, oil-wet pore network around kerogen.

oil generation expansion  pressure buildupmicrofracturing

hydrocarbon expulsion pressure release ….

Bend, 2007
 Polygonal Fault Systems

• Layer-bounded fault systems

• Small extension faults
• 10-50 m throw
• Faults dip 30 to 70o
• Random oriented fault patterns
Compaction-Dewatering
North Sea Overpressured
Shale
(Brown, 2004)
Cartwright, 2011
Cartwright, 1996
 PFS
• Form early in burial history
• Pervasively deformed fine-grained sediments
• claystones and biogenic mudstones: carbonate and
biosiliceous
• Hemipelagics
• Shear fractures and normal faults aggregate into
networks which are polygonal planforms
• Non-tectonic in origin
• Recognized in over 100 basins
 Polygonal Fault Systems
• Volumetric contraction resulting from compaction-
driven fluid expulsion
• Compaction dewatering occurs at shallow depth
• Vertical effective stress exceeds horizontal effective
stress and inclined fractures result
• Horizontal stress state in plane in which polygons are
developed is either isotropic or close to isotropic
 PFS
The Origin Debate
• Non-tectonic nature of deformation and its
relationship to early dewatering recognized

• Gravity collapse
• Density inversion
• Compactional loading
• Syneresis
• Diagenetically-induced shear failure
Cartwright et al., 2003; Cartwright, 2011
Selley, 1998
Density inversion

Cross-section of diapiric ridges

between low density layer and its
denser overburden.

Cross-section geometry of concentric

folds overlying a gravitational unstable
layer.

Plan view of the mature stage

Watterson et al., 2000

Syneresis Model

Dewhurst et al., 1999

From Noble Investor Presentation
 Lee 41-5
NE NE Sec. 5-T15N-R64W

7900
Sharon Springs
A Chalk

A Marl

CORE B1 Chalk
TOC
3.17

8000
4.2
2.5

NIOBRARA
2.3 B2 Chalk
7.8

B Marl
8100

C Chalk

C Marl
Fort Hays
8200

Codell SS

Pfs: 7898-8035; IP: 76 BOPD

Technology
 Technology

• Drilling and completing

• FE SEM, ion milling
• CT scans
• Bambino
• Porosity measurements (MICP, water immersion,
Nitrogen adsorption)
• Permeability measurements (GRI method, etc.)
Camp, 2014
Micromeritics, 2015
 Nitrogen Gas Adsorption Analysis
0.08
10 – 20 nm AC-1
0.07
dV/dlog(w) Pore Volume

AC-3
AM-2
0.06
AM-3
30 – 40 nm BC-3
0.05
(cm3/g)

BM-1
0.04 BM-2
CC-1
0.03 ~ 6 nm CM-2
0.02 CM-3
DM-2
0.01 DM-3

0.00 FH-2
0.1 1 10 100 FH-1
FH-3
Pore Diameter (nm)

282
 Nitrogen Adsorption Tests

Pore size distribution of all analyzed chalk samples (ElGhonimy, 2015).

Kerosene Saturation and Immersion
Experiments
POROSITY (%)

14.0 12.24
12.0 9.38 9.37
10.0 7.93

KIP Porosity (%)

7.68
8.0 5.68 5.43
6.0
3.20
4.0
2.0
0.0
AC AM BC BM CC CM DM FH
Sample ID

284
 9273

UBS 9286

MB 9290

9311
LBS
XRF DATA

Detrital indicators
Al, Ti, K, Mn

Ca, Si

Organic Elements
Cr, Zn, Mo, V, Cu, Ni, U

Anoxic Suite (Redox)

Mo, U, Ni
Fe, S (pyrite)

Mn (?)
Organic Suite

Anoxic Suite Detrital Suite

R2 values for Niton-
Gr TOC Cr Zn V Mo U Ni Fe S Al Ti K Si Ca ICP/LECO
relationships.
Nakamura, 2015.
 Principal Component
Analysis

 Group 1: Al, Si, Ti, Rb, Zr, K and Th. These elements are associated to terrigenous minerals including clay minerals, feldspars, and
quartz.
 Group 2: Cu, V and Cr. This group is associated with organic matter, redox conditions and is indicative of suboxic environments.
 Group 3: S, Mo, Ni, Fe, U and Zn. These elements are associated to anoxic conditions.
 Group 4: Ca and Sr. These elements are associated with carbonate. This is consistent with other studies that relate these elements to
diagenesis and aragonite to calcite alterations (Al Ibrahim, 2014; Pingitore Jr., 1978).
 Group 5: Consists of Mn element that is associated to oxic to suboxic conditions.
Sharon Springs Member, Pierre Shale

A Chalk

Niobrara Formation
A marl
B Chalk

B marl

C Chalk

C marl

D marl
Fort Hays
Codell SS
Carlile Formation

Bridge Creek

Greenhorn
Hartland Formation

Lincoln

Graneros
Formation
 Sharon Springs Member, Pierre Shale

A Chalk

Niobrara Formation
A marl
B Chalk

B marl

“K” C Chalk
C marl

D marl
Fort Hays
Codell SS
Carlile Formation

Bridge Creek

Hartland
Greenhorn
Formation

Lincoln

Graneros
Formation
 GRI-method permeability is an unsteady state gas pressure-decay technique and may be determined using
particles containing as-received pore liquids, yielding an effective kg or using clean-dry particles, yielding
an absolute kg. In some cases, both permeabilities are determined. The effects of coring- or sampling-
induced fractures and cracks are eliminated by use of small-particle samples and because of this the
results are often referred to as matrix permeability or km.

GRI "crushed" core analysis method provides:

•Bulk density (as-received conditions)
•Grain density (will include insoluble organic matter)
•Total interconnected porosity
•Gas-filled porosity
•Core saturations; Sw, So, Sg
•Matrix permeability to gas (at one or both as-received
and clean-dry conditions)

Particles in the 20-35 US mesh size range (0.85 to 0.5mm), above, are used in the GRI core analysis method.
In typical shale or mudrock, each particle will contain many thousands of individual grains and the associated
pore bodies and pore throats.

Core Laboratories has developed

the SMP-200, a new, built-for-
purpose, particle permeameter. It
incorporates a modified helium
pycnometer and proprietary
algorithms for derivation of km from
sample parameters and test data.
Aydin, 2017
Petrophysics
Archie’s equation:
 Rules of Thumb:
Archie (tortuosity) Porosity Saturation exponent, Rock types
factor, a (cementation) n
exponent, m
1.0 2.0 2.0 First-order estimate
1.0 2.0 2.0 Carbonates
0.81 2.0 2.0 Consolidated sands
0.62 2.15 2.0 Unconsolidated
sands
1.65 1.33 2.0 Shaly sands
1.45 1.7 2 Calcareous sands
1.45 1.54 2 Average sands
Archie’s equation
• Works well for conventional reservoirs, but there
are more “non-Archie” reservoirs that are of
interest:
• Shaly sands
• Thinly bedded sands and shales
• Conductive beds (pyrobitumen, pyrite, hematite,
graphite, etc.)
https://petrowiki.org/Water_saturation_determination
Bulk Volume Water, BVW
• Bulk Volume Water: BVW = Phi * Sw

• Irreducible Bulk Volume Water, BvWirr

• BVWirr = Phi * Swirr
• At BVWirr, production is water free
These are the points at BVW
These are wet points
irreducible
Pickett Plots
Krygowski, 2018
Krygowski, 2018
Krygowski, 2018
NMR + ECS Logs
 TCMR=total CMR Phi
BFV=Bound fluid volume
ECS CMFF=CMR free fluid

KSDR=perm SDR
KTIM=perm Timur

MRI CLA=clay
QFM=quartz+feld+m
PERM CAR=carbonate
ANH=anhydrite

CAR Lodgepole

Upper Bakken Shale

E-F
D
Q,F C
B Middle Bakken
A
Lower Bakken Shale
Pronghorn
Upper Three Forks

Middle Three Forks

P CY
Maturity effects on
Well Log Response
 0
Resistivity
SHALLOW, LOW RESISTIVITY TREND
REPRESENTS COMPACTION OF A
SALT WATER-SATURATED ORGANIC-
and Bakken
2000 RICH CALCAREOUS SHALE
hydrocarbon
generation,
depth: >6500’
DEEP, HIGH RESISTIVITY
CHARACTER
4000 REPRESENTS A HYDROCARBON-
Well Depth, feet

WET & SATURATED SOURCE ROCK

WHICH HAS GENERATED OIL
DEPTH RANGE THROUGH AND/OR GAS
WHICH HYDROCARBONS
6000 ARE GENERATED
“The existence of this
wide depth range
FPG suggests that the actual
0.54 PSI/FT depth of hydrocarbon
8000 generation is not uniform
throughout the basin”
0.50 PSI/FT

“the point at which

10000 hydrocarbon generation
0.73 PSI/FT
starts is actually more
Average Line 0.64 PSI/FT
directly related to
temperature than depth”
12000
0 25 50 75 100
Electrical Resistivity, ohm-meters
Modified from Meissner, 1978
 500

1000 SHALLOW LOW RESISTIVITY TREND

BAKKEN SUBSURFACE TEPMERATURE, F

SUGGESTED TEMPERATURE OF
HYDROCARBON GENERATION AT 1650F
1500

Suggested
2000 temperature of HC
generation = 165oF or
74oC
2500

3000

30 ohm-m
= mature source rocks

3500
0 25 50 75 100
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY ohm-meters

Modified from Meissner, 1978

 BAKKEN FORMATION TEMPERATURES
& SOURCE ROCK MATURITY
CANADA

USA

Limit of Bakken Formation

(from Sanberg, 1962)

MATURE “HIGH”-RESISTIVITY
BAKKEN SHALE
Matrix Oil Saturated
ND
MT
0 50
SD

IMMATURE “LOW”-RESISTIVITY
MILES
BAKKEN SHALE
Matrix Water Saturated

Meissner, 1978
 Water Wet

Change in pore-
fluid volume
(porosity) and pore-
fluid species which
may accompany
hydrocarbon-
generation
(maturity) in source
Oil Wet
rocks

Meissner, 1978
 Petrographic Test for Onset of Oil
Generation

immature unheated Onset

125 μm
(20μm thick)

kerogen-bitumen
300oC/72h
Hydrous Pyrolysis of
Woodford Shale Cores 125 μm

bitumen-oil 352oC/72h
Lewan (1987)
Resistivity Changes
Oil to the Gas
Window
Hinds and Berg, 1990
 The Wattenberg
Geothermal
Anomaly

Vitrinite Reflectance
Values, %Ro

Higley & Cox, 2005

Wattenberg Thermal Anomaly
Related to igneous masses in
basement
Located where CMB Wattenberg
Field

intersects Denver basin

Direct temperature
measurements
Ro values
GORs
Isopach Niobrara
Total Chalk Thickness
Niobrara Resistivity > 15 ohm m
 0.7 onset oil
Niobrara Resistivity > 15 ohm m; Ro values 0.9-1.1 peak oil
1.1-1.3 volatile oil
(modified from Higley et al., 2005) > 1.3 Gas Condensate
Decreasing Resistivity in the
Basin Center Accumulation
• Fluid types (oil window to gas window)
• Overpressure and microfractures
• Pyrobitumen
• Wettability
 Kerogen Maturity
Laboratory Experiments Thermal
Maturity
Oil Shale Coal and
Coal Char Electrical
Rajeshwar 1980
Duba 1983 Duba 1977 Resistivity
Meng et al. 2012
Graphitization
Daniels et al. 2007
Walters et al. 2013
?
Buseck and Beysacc 2014
Challenge: Measurement of
electrical resistivity of isolated
kerogen at different maturity levels

Gama Firdaus, 2017

Effect of Thermal Maturity on Electrical Resistivity

1E+13
Eagle Ford Mudrock
1E+12
Electrical Resistivity (ohm-m)

Haynesville Mudrock
1E+11 Haynesville Kerogen
1E+10 Eagle Ford Kerogen
1E+09
1E+08
1E+07
1E+06
1E+05
1E+04
Decrease in conductive
1E+03 pathways is dominant Increase of graphitization is dominant
1E+02
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Heat-Treatment Temperature (°C)

Measurements are all made at room temperature : 76±2 °F

Gama Firdaus, 2017

Loucks et al., Picopore Nanopore Micropore Mesopore
2012 (pore dia.,)
Hartman et al., Micro- Meso- Macro-
1999 Nanopore Megapore
pore pore pore
(pore throat rd.)

Tight
Oil
Pore Sizes

Nelson, 2009
Passey et al., 2012
Why Directional
Wells?
Blanket and Lenticular Reservoirs
 Why
Shale not just
Drilling a horizontal well?
and Completions
Cemented Bottom Hole
Assembly

Uncemented Bottom Hole

Assembly
Well-Bore Breakout
Reservoir Drive
Hartmann and Beaumont, 1999
Play Comparisons
Wren, 2011
 Attributes of Historic Shale Plays
Fayetteville New Albany
Property Marcellus Barnett Shale Woodford Antrim Shale Eagle Ford Haynesville Bakken Niobrara Vaca Muerta
Shale Shale

Basin Appalachian Fort Worth Oklahoma Arkoma Michigan Illinois Gulf Coast Gulf Coast Williston Denver Neuquén

Age Devonian Mississippian L. Devonian Mississippian Devonian Devonian Cretaceous Jurassic Late Dev-Miss U Cretaceous Jurassic

Silica-rich black
Black and Gray Black and Gray Siliceous Black
Play Type Siliceous Shale shale Black Shale Black Shale Calcareous Shale Siliceous Marl Marls & Chalk Siliceous Marl
Shale Shale Shale

Thermogenic and Biogenic &

Sub Play Thermogenic Thermogenic Thermogenic Thermogenic Biogenic Thermogenic Thermogenic Thermogenic Thermogenic
Biogenic Thermogenic

Maturation (Vr
1.3-2.4 1.1 - 1.4 0.8-2.9 1.2 – 2.0+ 0.6 - 0.7 0.6 - 1.2 0.5-2.2 0.94-2.62 0.6-1.1 0.6-1.5 0.5-2.6
%)

Richness (wt %
4-7 2-5 3-6.5 2 – 6.9 5 - 15 5 - 20 4.5-5.5 3.0-10.0 4-12 4-6 2.0-12
TOC)

Porosity (%) 7-9 3-7 5-7 4-9 5 - 12 5 - 12 4-10 7.0-9.0 5-7 6-12 7-12

Mineralogy
45-70 45 - 70 40-70 na 55 - 70 50 - 70 50-70 50-70 40-70 50-70 50-70
(% Non - Clay)

Thickness (ft) 50-300 200 - 400 50-300 200-300 70-120 180 80-300 180-270 40-60 300-400 100-1800

Depth (ft) 5,000-8,500 7,000 - 8,500 6,000-13,000 3,000-7,000 500 - 2,500 1,000 - 2,500 5,000-12,000 10,000-13,500 8,000-10,000 7,000-9,000 8,000-11,000

Pressure Grad.
0.6+ 0.50 0.5-0.7 0.45 (?) 0.43 ~ 0.43 0.6-0.9 0.9-1.1 0.5-0.76 0.5+ 0.6-1.1
(psi/ft)

Kerogen Type II II II II II II II II II II & III II

Avg. Well EUR

4-10 1.6-2.5 2.5-4.0 1.5-2.2 0.28 1.1 5 3-6 4-6 3 3-6
(Bcfe)

Critical to Prod.,
Natural Critical to Critical to Critical to
yes faults into lower yes yes yes yes yes yes
Fractures Productivity Productivity Productivity
water bad.
The Unconventional
Check List
 Unconventional, Continuous
Tight Oil\Gas Accumulations
• Pervasive accumulations that are hydrocarbon saturated
• Not localized by buoyancy
• Abnormally pressured (high or low)
• Commonly lack downdip water
• Updip contact with regional water saturation
• Low-permeability and low matrix porosity reservoirs
• Reservoirs may be single or vertically stacked
• Commonly enhanced by fracturing
• Associated with mature source rocks that are either actively generating or have recently
ceased generation
• Hydrocarbons of thermal origin
• Fields have diffuse boundaries
• Inverted Petroleum Systems
• Tectonically quiet
• GOR ~ 1000 cu ft / bbl