By:

digigate100@yahoo.com
Outline:
• Definition
• Resistors
• Capacitors
• Inductors
• Network Theorems
DEFINITIONS
Electrical Circuit
• A system of conductors through which
electrical current flows.
• Usually contains resistors, inductors,
capacitors, wires, and power sources.
S1

+ V1 L1
10V
DC Circuit

• An electrical circuit in which the

applied source is DC (Direct Current).
Direct Current
• An electric current that flows in one
direction.

• Can be classified to:

– Continuous DC
– Unidirectional DC
– Pulsating DC
Types of Current Flow
• Conventional Flow
– “+ to - direction”

• Electron Flow
– “- to + direction”
– Actual flow of current

No matter what current flow is used the magnitude

of the current remains the same.
RESISTORS
Resistors

• Passive components used to limit the

flow of electric current or provide a
voltage drop in a circuit.
Resistors Classifications
• Fixed and Variable Resistors

• Linear and Non-linear Resistors

• General purpose and Precision

Resistors
Fixed Resistors
• Carbon Composition
– Most common resistors found because they are
easy to manufacture, inexpensive and have an
adequate tolerance.
– Its prime disadvantage is that they have a
tendency to change value as they age.
– One other disadvantage of carbon resistors is its
limited power handling capacity.

• Metal Film
– Are constructed by depositing a thin film of a
metal. The thinness of the film determines the
resistance.
Fixed Resistors
• Carbon Film
– They are constructed out of a ceramic carrier
with a thin pure carbon film around it, that
functions as resistive material.

• Wire-wound
– Have very accurate values and possess a higher
current handling capability than carbon resistors.
– The material that is frequently used to
manufacture wire-wound resistors is German
silver which is composed of copper, nickel, and
zinc.
Variable Resistors

• Potentiometers

• Rheostats
Potentiometers
• Potentiometers always
has 3 connections;
two fixed and one
variable.

• Wide range of values

but limited current
handling capabilities.

• Always connected as
voltage dividers.
Rheostats
• Rheostats always
have 2 connections,
1 fixed and 1
variable.

• Rheostats have
limited range of
values and high-
current handling
capabilities.
Resistors Color Coding

A fifth band on some color-coded resistors indicates

the resistor’s reliability in percent of failures per
1000hrs of use.
Unit of Resistance
(Ohms)
• A conductor has one ohm of
resistance when an applied
potential of one volt produces
a current of one ampere.

• The standard of measure for

one ohm is the resistance
provided at zero degrees
Celsius by a column of
mercury having a cross-
sectional area of one square
millimeter and a length of
106.3 centimeters.
Factors Affecting
Resistance

• Type of Material

• Cross-Sectional Area

• Length of Conductor
Type of Material

• Different materials will

have different
quantities of free
electrons. Therefore,
different values of
resistance.

• Silver, Copper, Gold,

and Aluminum.
Cross-Sectional Area
• If the cross-sectional area of a
conductor is increased, a greater
quantity of electrons are available for
movement through the conductor.

• Thus, the resistance of a conductor is

inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area.
Length Of Conductor
• As free electrons move from atom to
atom some energy is given off as heat.
The longer a conductor is, the more
energy is lost to heat.

• The additional energy loss subtracts from

the energy being transferred through the
conductor, resulting in a decrease in
current flow for a given applied voltage.
Value Of Resistance

Where:

R = resistance, Ohms (Ω)

ρ = resistivity, Ohm-meter (Ω-m)

l = conductor length, (m)

A = cross-sectional area, (sq.m)

CAPACITORS
Capacitors
• A device that stores electrical energy
in an electrostatic field.

• Capacitor consists of two conducting

plates called electrodes and
separated by a layer of an insulating
material medium called Dielectric.
Capacitance
• Capacitance is the electrical size of a
capacitor.

• Capacitance is the measure of how

much electric energy in an
electrostatic field.
Electrostatic Field
• Characteristics of Electrostatic Lines of Force.

– They are polarized from positive to negative.

– They radiate in a straight line and does not form

a closed loop.

– They have the ability to pass through any known

material.

– They have the ability to distort the orbits of tightly

bound electrons.
Storing of Energy by
the Electrostatic Field
A Simple Capacitor
Unit of Capacitance
(Farad)
• Farad is the SI unit of
capacitance.

• One Farad
capacitor stores one Where:
coulomb of a C = capacitance, Farad (F)
charge when one
volt is applied across Q = stored charge, Coulomb (C)
the terminals of the V = potential difference, Volts (V)
capacitor.
Factors Affecting
Capacitance
• The Area of the
Plates

• The Distance
between the Plates

• The Dielectric
Constant of the
Material between
the Plates
Value of the
Capacitance

Where:

C = capacitance, Farad (F)

k = permittivity of dielectric material (F/m)
A = area of each plate, (sq.m)
d = distance between plates (m)
Energy Stored By A
Capacitor

Where:

WC = energy stored, Joules (J)

C = capacitance, Farad (F)
V = voltage, Volts (V)
Working Voltage
• Working Voltage is the maximum
voltage that can be steadily applied
without breaking down the capacitor.

• The Working Voltage of Capacitors is

dependent on the dielectric materials
used and the operating frequency.
Capacitor Losses
• Power Losses in a Capacitor is
Attributed by:

– Dielectric Hysteresis

– Dielectric Leakage
Dielectric Hysteresis
• Dielectric Hysteresis is the effect in the
dielectric material similar to the
hysteresis found in the magnetic
material.

• It is the result of changes in orientation

of electron orbits in the dielectric
because of the rapid reversals of the
polarity of the line voltage.
Dielectric Leakage
• Dielectric Leakage in a capacitor as a
result of leakage current through the
dielectric.

• If the leakage current through the

dielectric is abnormally high, there will
be a rapid loss of charge and
overheating will occur.
Charging of
Capacitors

• To charge a
capacitor, the
plates of the
capacitor should
be connected to
an applied
voltage.
Discharging a
Capacitor
• To Discharge a
capacitor, simply
short out the plates
of the capacitor.

• The short plates will

recombine the
negatively and
positively charged
particles and will
become neutral.
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors in Parallel
INDUCTORS
Inductors

• Inductors are simply a coil of wire that

introduces inductance in a circuit.
Inductance

• Inductance is the
characteristic of
an electrical
circuit that
opposes the
change in value
of current.
Unit of Inductance
(Henry)
• An inductor has an
inductance of 1
Henry if an EMF of
1 Volt is induced in
the inductor when
the current through
the inductor is
changing at rate
of 1 Ampere per
second.
Self-Inductance
• The property of the material which
determines the amount of electromotive
force induced in the circuit whenever the
current changes in the circuit.

• A measure of the ability of a coil to

oppose any change in current through
the coil and store energy in the form of
magnetic field in the region surrounding
the coil.
Factors Affecting
Inductance
• Number of Turns of Coil

• The Diameter of the Coil

• The Coil Length

• The Type of Material Used in the Core

• The Number of Layers of the Winding

Number of Turns of Coil

• The inductance varies as the square of

the number of turns
Coil Diameter
• Inductors with
larger diameter will
have a larger cross-
sectional area

• The inductance of
a coil increases
directly as the
cross-sectional
area of the core
increases
Length of the Coil
• Doubling the length of a coil while
keeping the same number of turns
halves the value of inductance.
Type of Material Used
in the Core

• The inductance of a coil increases

directly as the permeability of the core
material increases.
Number of Layers
of the Winding

• The inductance
of the coil
increases with
each layer
added.
Value Of Inductance

Where:

L = inductance, Henry (H)

l = coil length, (m)
μr = relative permeability, unitless
μo = absolute permeability, (H/m) – const.33
A = cross-sectional area of the coil, (sq.m)
N = no. of turns
Stored Energy In An
Inductor

Where:

WL = energy stored, Joules (J)

L = inductance, Henry (H)
I = current, Amperes (A)
Power Losses
in an Inductor

• Copper Loss

• Hysteresis Loss

• Eddy-Current Loss
Copper Loss

• A considerable amount of power loss

due to a large amount of current
flowing through a small amount of
resistance of the inductor coil.
Hysteresis Loss
• Hysteresis loss is due to the power
wasted in reversing the magnetic field
of the inductor core each time the
direction of current in the inductor
changes.
Eddy-Current Loss
• Eddy-Current Loss is due to the heating
of the core by the circulating currents
that are induced in the iron core by
the magnetic field around the turns of
the coil.
Mutual Inductance
• The common inductance of two coupled
electrical circuits which determines, for a
given rate of change of current in one of
the circuits, the electromotive force that
will be induced in the other.

• The measure of the amount of inductive

coupling that exists between the two
coils.
Factors That Affect
Mutual Inductance
• The Physical Dimensions of
the Coil

• The Number of Turns of Each

Coil

• The Distance between the

Coils

• The Relative Positions of the

Axes of the Two Coils

• The Permeability of the Coils

Mutual Inductance

Where:

M = mutual inductance, (H)

L1 = self inductance of coil 1, (H)

L2 = self inductance of coil 2, (H)

k = coupling coefficient
= 1 if all the flux produced by L1 are linked to L2
Sample Question
• One 10H coil and one 20H coil are
connected in series and are physically
close to each other so that their
coefficient of coupling is 0.5. What is the
mutual inductance between the coils?
A. 100H
B. 7.07H
C. 10H
D. 11.82H
Coupling Coefficient

• The Coupling Coefficient between two

coils is equal to the ratio of the flux
cutting one coil to the flux originated
in the other coil.
Series Coils
with Mutual Inductance
Parallel Coil
with Mutual Induction
Sample Question
• A 10H coil is connected in series with a
5H coil so that the fields aid each
other. Their mutual inductance is 7H.
What is the combined inductance of
the coils?
A. 11H
B. 22.37H
C. 18.54H
D. 29H
NETWORK THEOREMS
Ohm’s Law
• The current flowing
in an electrical
circuit is directly
proportional to the
applied voltage
(V) and inversely
proportional to the
equivalent
resistance (R).
Electrical Power
• The rate at which electrical energy is used or
consumed.
• Watt is the unit of power.
• Watt is equivalent to 1 Joule of energy used in 1
Second.
Electrical
and Heat Energy
Series Circuit
Voltage Divider Rule
Parallel Circuit
Current Divider Rule
Delta and Wye Circuits
Delta and Wye Circuits
• Find the total current.

It R1 R2
3 ohms 6 ohms
R5
V1 + 6 ohms
30 V

R3 R4
6 ohms 4 ohms

It = 6.54A
Delta and Wye Circuits
• Calculate for the current It.

It = 0.8A
Kirchoff’s Law
• Kirchoff’s Current • Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law (KCL): Law (KVL):

– The Algebraic Sum – The Algebraic Sum

of the currents of the voltage drops
entering and leaving and the supply
any node or junction voltage in a closed
is equal to zero path or loop is zero.
Kirchoff’s Current and
Voltage Law:
Superposition Theorem
Superposition Theorem
• Compute for the voltage across Node
A & B.
R1 R2
30 kohms 60 kohms

A
V1 + V2
24 V B 9 V
+

Vab = 13 V
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Compute for the voltage across load
resistor R3.

Vab = 8 V
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Compute for the current flowing
through resistor R3.
R1 R2

A
12ohms 3ohms

V1 R3 V2
84V 6ohms 21V
+ +
B

I3 = 4 A
Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
• Compute for the current flowing
through resistor R3.

I3 = 4 A
Source Conversion
• Any voltage source with its series
resistance can be converted to an
equivalent current source with the
same resistance in parallel.

• Any current source with parallel

resistance can be converted to
voltage source with the same
resistance.
Sample Question
• In the circuit shown below, the value
of RL such that the power transferred
to RL is maximum is
A. 5ohms
B. 10ohms
C. 15ohms
D. 20ohms
Millman’s Theorem
Millman’s Theorem
• Compute for the voltage across node
X and Y.

Vxy = 6 V
QUESTIONS???
TOP ECE Review Mentor