1nature of Mat

THE NATURE OF MATERIALS
1. Atomic Structure and the Elements

2. Bonding between Atoms and Molecules
3. Crystalline Structures
4. Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures
5. Engineering Materials
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 4/e SI Version
Importance of Materials in
Manufacturing
 Manufacturing is a transformation process

 It is the material that is transformed
 And it is the behavior of the material when
subjected to the forces, temperatures, and other
parameters of the process that determines the
success of the operation
Element Groupings
 The elements can be grouped into families and

relationships established between and within the
families by means of the Periodic Table
 Metals occupy the left and center portions of the
table
 Nonmetals are on right
 Between them is a transition zone containing
metalloids or semi-metals
Periodic Table
Atomic Structure and the
Elements
 The basic structural unit of matter is the atom

 Each atom is composed of a positively charged
nucleus, surrounded by a sufficient number of
negatively charged electrons so the charges are
balanced
 More than 100 elements, and they are the
chemical building blocks of all matter
Simple Model of Atomic
Structure for Several Atoms
 (a) Hydrogen, (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, and

(e) sodium
Bonding between Atoms and
Molecules
 Atoms are held together in molecules by various

types of bonds
1. Primary bonds - generally associated with
formation of molecules
2. Secondary bonds - generally associated with
attraction between molecules
 Primary bonds are much stronger than secondary
bonds
Primary Bonds
 Characterized by strong atom-to-atom attractions that

involve exchange of valence electrons
 Following forms:
 Ionic
 Covalent
 Metallic
Ionic Bonding
 Atoms of one element

give up their outer
electron(s), which are in
turn attracted to atoms of
some other element to
increase electron count
in the outermost shell to
eight
Covalent Bonding
 Electrons are shared

(as opposed to
transferred) between
atoms in their outermost
shells to achieve a
stable set of eight
Two Examples of
Covalent Bonding
Metallic Bonding
 Sharing of outer shell

electrons by all atoms to
form a general electron
cloud that permeates the
entire block
Secondary Bonds
Whereas primary bonds involve atom-to-atom attractive

forces, secondary bonds involve attraction forces
between molecules
 No transfer or sharing of electrons
 Bonds are weaker than primary bonds
 Three forms:
1. Dipole forces
2. London forces
3. Hydrogen bonding
Dipole Forces
 Arise in a molecule comprised of two atoms with

equal and opposite electrical charges
 Each molecule therefore forms a dipole that attracts
other molecules
London Forces
 Attractive force between non-polar molecules, i.e.,

atoms in molecule do not form dipoles
 However, due to rapid motion of electrons in orbit,
temporary dipoles form when more electrons are on
one side
Hydrogen Bonding
 Occurs in molecules containing hydrogen atoms

covalently bonded to another atom (e.g., H2O)
 Since electrons to complete shell of hydrogen atom
are aligned on one side of nucleus, opposite side has
a net positive charge that attracts electrons in other
molecules
Macroscopic Structures of Matter
 Atoms and molecules are the building blocks of a

more macroscopic structure of matter
 When materials solidify from the molten state, they
tend to close ranks and pack tightly, arranging
themselves into one of two structures:
 Crystalline
 Noncrystalline
Crystalline Structure
Structure in which atoms are located at regular and

recurring positions in three dimensions
 Unit cell - basic geometric grouping of atoms that is
repeated
 The pattern may be replicated millions of times within
a given crystal
 Characteristic structure of virtually all metals, as well
as many ceramics and some polymers
Three Crystal Structures in
Metals
 Three types of crystal structure: (a) body-centered

cubic, (b) face-centered cubic, and (c) hexagonal
close-packed
Crystal Structures for Common
Metals
 Room temperature crystal structures for some of the

common metals:
 Body-centered cubic (BCC)
 Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Tungsten
 Face-centered cubic (FCC)
 Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Lead, Silver, Nickel
 Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
 Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc
Imperfections (Defects) in
Crystals
 Imperfections often arise due to inability of solidifying

material to continue replication of unit cell, e.g., grain
boundaries in metals
 Imperfections can also be introduced purposely; e.g.,
addition of alloying ingredient in metal
 Types of defects: (1) point defects, (2) line defects, (3)
surface defects
Point Defects
Imperfections in crystal structure involving either a

single atom or a small number of atoms
Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ion-pair vacancy, (c) interstitialcy,

(d) displaced ion (Frenkel Defect).
Line Defects
Connected group of point defects that forms a line in the

lattice structure
 Most important line defect is a dislocation, which can
take two forms:
 Edge dislocation
 Screw dislocation
Edge Dislocation
Edge of an extra plane of atoms that exists in the

lattice
Screw Dislocation
Spiral within the lattice

structure wrapped
around an
imperfection line,
like a screw is
wrapped around its
axis
Surface Defects
Imperfections that extend in two directions to form a

boundary
 Examples:
 External: the surface of a crystalline object is
an interruption in the lattice structure
 Internal: grain boundaries are internal surface
interruptions
Elastic Strain
 When a crystal experiences a gradually increasing

stress, it first deforms elastically
Deformation of a crystal structure: (a) original lattice: (b) elastic

deformation, no permanent change in positions of atoms
Plastic Strain
 If the stress is higher

than forces holding
atoms in their lattice
positions, then a
permanent shape
change occurs
Plastic deformation (slip), in which atoms in the crystal lattice

structure are forced to move to new "homes“
Effect of Dislocations on
Strain
 In the series of diagrams, the movement of the
dislocation allows deformation to occur under a lower
stress than in a perfect lattice
Slip on a Macroscopic Scale
 Slip occurs many times over throughout the metal when

subjected to a deforming load, thus causing it to exhibit
its macroscopic behavior in the stress-strain relationship
 Dislocations are a good-news-bad-news situation
 Good news in manufacturing – the metal is easier to
form
 Bad news in design – the metal is not as strong as
the designer would like
Twinning
 A second mechanism
of plastic deformation
in which atoms on one
side of a plane (the
twinning plane) are
shifted to form a mirror
image of the other side
 Before
Twinning
 After
Polycrystalline Nature of Metals
 A block of metal may contain millions of individual

crystals, called grains
 Such a structure is called polycrystalline
 Each grain has its own unique lattice orientation
 But collectively, the grains are randomly oriented in
the block
Grains and Grain Boundaries in
Metals
 How do polycrystalline structures form?

 As a volume of metal cools from the molten state and
begins to solidify, individual crystals nucleate at
random positions and orientations throughout the
liquid
 These crystals grow and finally interfere with each
other, forming at their interface a surface defect - a
grain boundary, which are transition zones, perhaps
only a few atoms thick
Noncrystalline (Amorphous)
Structures
 Water and air have noncrystalline structures

 A metal loses its crystalline structure when melted
 Some engineering materials have noncrystalline forms
in their solid state
 Glass
 Many plastics
 Rubber
Features of Noncrystalline
Structures
 Two features differentiate noncrystalline (amorphous)

from crystalline materials:
1. Absence of long-range order in molecular
structure
2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion
characteristics
Crystalline versus Noncrystalline
Structures of Materials
 Difference in structure between: (a) crystalline and
(b) noncrystalline materials
 Crystal structure is regular, repeating; noncrystalline
structure is less tightly packed and random
(a) (b)
Volumetric Effects
 Characteristic change in
volume for a pure metal
(a crystalline structure),
compared to same
volumetric changes in
glass (a noncrystalline
structure)
Summary: Characteristics of
Metals
 Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost

without exception
 BCC, FCC, or HCP unit cells
 Atoms held together by metallic bonding
 Properties: high strength and hardness, high
electrical and thermal conductivity
 FCC metals are generally ductile
Ceramics
 Most ceramics have crystalline structures, while glass

(SiO2) is amorphous
 Molecules characterized by ionic or covalent bonding,
or both
 Properties: high hardness and stiffness, electrically
insulating, refractory, and chemically inert
Polymers
 Many repeating mers in molecule held together by

covalent bonding
 Polymers usually carbon plus one or more other
elements: H, N, O, and Cl
 Amorphous (glassy) structure or mixture of
amorphous and crystalline
 Properties: low density, high electrical resistivity, and
low thermal conductivity, strength and stiffness vary
widely

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THE NATURE OF MATERIALS

1. Atomic Structure and the Elements

 Manufacturing is a transformation process

 The elements can be grouped into families and

 The basic structural unit of matter is the atom

 (a) Hydrogen, (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, and

 Atoms are held together in molecules by various

 Characterized by strong atom-to-atom attractions that

 Atoms of one element

 Electrons are shared

 Sharing of outer shell

Whereas primary bonds involve atom-to-atom attractive

 Arise in a molecule comprised of two atoms with

 Attractive force between non-polar molecules, i.e.,

 Occurs in molecules containing hydrogen atoms

 Atoms and molecules are the building blocks of a

Structure in which atoms are located at regular and

 Three types of crystal structure: (a) body-centered

 Room temperature crystal structures for some of the

 Imperfections often arise due to inability of solidifying

Imperfections in crystal structure involving either a

Point defects: (a) vacancy, (b) ion-pair vacancy, (c) interstitialcy,

Connected group of point defects that forms a line in the

Edge of an extra plane of atoms that exists in the

Spiral within the lattice

Imperfections that extend in two directions to form a

 When a crystal experiences a gradually increasing

Deformation of a crystal structure: (a) original lattice: (b) elastic

 If the stress is higher

Plastic deformation (slip), in which atoms in the crystal lattice

 Slip occurs many times over throughout the metal when

 A block of metal may contain millions of individual

 How do polycrystalline structures form?

 Water and air have noncrystalline structures

 Two features differentiate noncrystalline (amorphous)

 Crystalline structures in the solid state, almost

 Most ceramics have crystalline structures, while glass

 Many repeating mers in molecule held together by

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