The Endocrine System

Modes of secretion and action of chemical

messengers

autocrine
(hormones) paracrine endocrine synaptic

Chemical messenger target cell

receptors target cell

 Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Amino acid derivatives (eg thyroxine, adrenaline)
2. Small peptides (eg vasopressin, thyroid releasing
hormone)
3. Proteins (eg insulin, growth hormone)
4. Steroids (eg cortisol, testosterone, progesterone)
Positive and negative feedback control
of hormone production
 Sensory neuronal stimulation

Higher brain centers Higher brain centers

neurotransmitters neurotransmitters
Hypothalamus Hypothalamus

TRH CRH
Anterior Pituitary Anterior Pituitary
TSH ACTH
Thyroid follicular cells Adrenal cortex

T3/T4 Cortisol
Various tissues Adrenal medulla
Epinephrine

Various tissues
 Diffuse NeuroEndocrine System

The DNES involves a number of isolated cells,

or small groups of cells, that are situated
throughout the body, but particularly in the
digestive, respiratory and urinary systems. These
cells, called APUD cells, secrete chemical
messengers that generally act in a paracrine manner.
 The Endocrine Glands
Most organs have some
endocrine function. The next
lectures will deal with organs
whose only functions are to
secrete hormones:

Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenal
Pancreas*

*Pancreas has both endocrine

and exocrine functions
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary hormones and their target organs
Development of the pituitary gland

hypothalamus

median eminence
infundibulum
(stalk)

pars nervosa
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary

hypothalamus

median
eminence
pars tuberalis
infundibulum
(stalk)
pars nervosa

pars distalis

pars intermedia
posterior anterior
Hormone production and release by the
neurohypophysis

(oxytocin)

(ADH)

(pars nervosa)
(pars distalis)
Herring body in neurohypophysis

Pituicytes
(glial cells)

Herring body
Herring Bodies along a Capillary

Secretory granule

Axon terminal

Capillary
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary

hypothalamus

median
eminence
pars tuberalis
infundibulum
(stalk)
pars nervosa

pars distalis

pars intermedia
posterior anterior
 It is important to remember that the
neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) is part of
the brain, to which it is connected. It is comprised
of the median eminence, which is a down growth
of the hypothalamus, the infindubulum (stalk) and
the pars nervosa.
The adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) is
comprised of the pars tuberalis, pars distalis
(which makes up the bulk of the anterior pituitary,
and the pars intermedia, which is the remnant of
Rathke’s pouch.
Development of the pituitary gland

hypothalamus

median eminence
infundibulum
(stalk)

pars nervosa
Chromophils and Chromophobes
in the Adenohypophysis
Chromophobes

Chromophils
Acidophils

capillary

Basophils
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary

hypothalamus

median
eminence
pars tuberalis
infundibulum
(stalk)
pars nervosa

pars distalis

pars intermedia
posterior anterior
 Portal veins
Pituitary
Pars tuberalis
and portal
Pars tuberalis
veins

Infundibulum
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary

hypothalamus

median
eminence
pars tuberalis
infundibulum

pars nervosa

pars distalis

pars intermedia
posterior anterior
The Insignificant Middle Lobe
 1

Hypophyseal portal system

 Hypophyseal
portal veins
Pituitary
Pars tuberalis
and portal
Pars tuberalis
veins

Infundibulum
Pituitary hormones and their target organs
Thyroid Gland
Thyroid and parathyroid glands
Parafollicular Follicular
cell cell

Colloid

Thyroid gland

Oxyphil cell
Chief cell

Parathyroid gland
Two thyroid lobules separated by CT septum

CT F

lobule
Thyroid Follicles
Follicular cells

thyroglobulin

capillaries

Basement
membrane
A. Synthesis and iodination of thyroglobulin
B. Release of thyroxine (T3 and T4)

A B
 Iodine
hypothalamus deficiency hypothalamus

goiter

TRH TRH

Negative feedback Excess TSH

TSH

Low Negative
Iodine Iodine

T3/T4
Low T4
Iodine deficiency
goiter
Parafollicular cells in the thyroid
Action of calcitonin and PTH in
blood calcium homeostasis

Inhibits osteoclasts

stimulates
osteoclasts
 Parathyroids are situated on the
posterior surface of the thyroid gland

Thyroid

Parathyroid
Parathyroid and thyroid glands

Parathyroid
 Cells of the parathyroid

Chief cells

Oxyphil cells
Interaction of calcitonin and PTH in
blood calcium homeostasis

Inhibits osteoclasts

stimulates
osteoclasts
Adrenal Gland
 Adrenal

Z. glomerulosa

Cortex
Z. fasciculata

Z. reticularis

Medulla

Capsule
 Hormones
Mineralocorticoids
(e.g. aldosterone)
Capsule

Z. glomerulosa Glucocorticoids
e.g. cortisol

Sex hormones
Z. fasciculata e.g. DHEA

Z. reticularis Adrenaline
Preganglionic
cap sympathetic terminal

Medulla Noradrenaline
 Adrenal

Z. glomerulosa

Cortex
Z. fasciculata

Z. reticularis

Medulla

Capsule
 Hormones
Mineralocorticoids
(eg. aldosterone)
Capsule

Z. glomerulosa Glucocorticoids
(eg cortisone)

Sex hormones
Z. fasciculata (eg DHEA)

Z. reticularis Adrenaline
Preganglionic
cap sympathetic
neuron
Medulla Noradrenaline
 Cells of the adrenal medulla

Chromaffin
cells

Postganglionic
parasympathetic
neurons
 Adrenal Blood Supply
Capsule Subcapsular
arterial plexus

Z. glomerulosa.
Medullary
artery
Z. fasciculata. Fenestrated
sinusoids

Z. reticularis.

Medulla.

Medullary vein
Arterial and Venous blood in Adrenal
Pancreas
Islet of Langerhans in Pancreas

Acinar cells

Islet
 Cells and hormones of the
pancreatic islets
1. b-cells secrete insulin (causes decrease in blood glucose)

2. a-cells secrete glucagon (causes breakdown of glycogen

and increase of blood sugar)

3. d-cells secrete somatostatin (has both paracrine [inhibits

release of insulin and glucagon] and endocrine effects
[reduces motility of smooth muscle of gut])

4. G-cells secrete gastrin (stimulates release of HCl from

parietal cells of stomach

5. PP-cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide (inhibits exocrine

secretion of pancreatic enzymes)
C’est tout
TYPES OF MICROCIRCULATION

Venous Portal system

Arterial portal system

GUT LIVER

Typical arrangement
Hormone production and release by the
neurohypophysis

(pars nervosa)
(pars distalis)