Physical and Data Link Layers

(Layer 1 & 2):

Ethernet (Network Interfce Card)
 The Medium Access Sublayer
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
 IEEE 802.1 High Level Interface
 IEEE 802.2 LLC (Logical Link Control)
 IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection)
 IEEE 802.4 Token-Bus
 IEEE 802.5 Token-Ring
 IEEE 802.6 DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus)
 IEEE 802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Group
 IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Group
 IEEE 802.9 Integrated Voice and Data LAN Working
Group
 IEEE 802.10 LAN Security Working Group
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
 IEEE 802.12 Demand-Priority (100VG-AnyLAN)
 IEEE 802.14 Hybrid Fiber Coaxial Network
The Medium Access Sublayer
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
IEEE Standard 802.3 and Ethernet
The Medium Access Sublayer
Connecting two Hosts (Bridging)
Operation of a LAN bridge
from 802.3 to 802.4
The Medium Access Sublayer
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
IEEE Standard 802.2: Logical Link Control
 Physical and Data Link Layer
To which OSI layer does Ethernet belong?
Ethernet belongs to both the Physical Layer (Layer 1) and the Data Link
layer (Layer 2) in the OSI architecture.
What are the standard data rates for Ethernet?
The standard data rates for Ethernet are 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps
What are the IEEE standards that cover Ethernet?
The following IEEE standards define Ethernet:

+--------+----------------------------------------------------+
|IEEE | Description |
|Standard| |
+--------+----------------------------------------------------+
|802.2 |Logical Link Control (LLC) Specification. Specifies|
| |the general interface between the network layer |
| |(IP, IPX, etc) and the data link layer (Ethernet, |
| |Token Ring, etc). |
+--------+----------------------------------------------------+
|802.3 |CSMA/CD Network (Ethernet) Specification. Specifies|
| |the frame format, cabling and signaling standards. |
+--------+----------------------------------------------------+
The Medium Access Sublayer
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
IEEE Standard 802.3 and Ethernet
IEEE 802.3: 1-persistent CSMA/CD
 The Medium Access Sublayer
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
IEEE Standard 802.3 and Ethernet

To allow larger networks, multiple cables can be connected by

repeaters.
A repeater is a physical layer
device. It receives, amplifies, and
retransmits signals in both
directions. As far as the software
is concerned, a series of cable
segments connected by repeaters
is no different than a single cable.
 The Medium Access Sublayer
10BASE5 10BASE2 1BASE5 10BROAD36 10BASE-T
Ethernet Cheaper net StarLAN Broadband Twisted-pair
medium coaxial cable coaxial cable twisted-pair coaxial cable 2 simplex TP
50ohm-10mm 50ohms-5mm unshielded 75ohms unshielded

signals 10Mbps 10Mbps 1Mbps 10Mbps 10Mbps

Manch Manch Manch DPSK Manch
maximum
segment 500m 185m 500m 1800m 100m
maximum
distance 2.5km 0.925km 2.5km 3.6km 1km

nodes per 2
100 30
segment
activity on
collision 2 active hub transmission
excess current receiver and
detection inputs =reception
transmitter
Notes slot time=512 bits; gap time=96 bits; jam=32 to 48 bits
Ethernet

• What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a Local Area Network (LAN) cabling
and signaling specification for baseband
networks. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology for
connecting different nodes in a network.
Ethernet Frame (MAC Packet)

 The most popular physical layer implementation

 Developed in 1982, by DEC, Xerox and Intel
 Uses Carrier sense, multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD)
 Initially a 10Mb/s signalling rate but developed to
be as fast 1Gb/s.
 Nearly the same as IEEE 802.3
 The Medium Access Sublayer
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
IEEE Standard 802.3 and Ethernet
Ethernet Frame Structure (Ethernet Encapsulation)
7 1 6 6 2 4
preamble SFD DA SA type Data CRC

synchronize 60 to 1514 bytes

the receiver
type
Cyclic Redundancy Check
start frame 0800: IPv4 datagram
delimiter 0806: ARP request/reply
8035: RARP request/reply
86DD: IPv6
Ethernet Frame (cont’d)
 An Ethernet frame:

 2 byte type that indicates what kind of data

follows, e.g., 0800 for an IP packet
 Then the data, maximum 1500 bytes, minimum 46
bytes
 Data field must be padded with extra bytes if
fewer than 46 bytes are supplied
Ethernet Frame (cont’d)

 An Ethernet frame:

 4 byte checksum, also called cyclic redundancy

check (CRC)
 Used to check for errors in the frame
Ethernet Frame (cont’d)

 Ethernet is a shared medium

 A wishes to send to B
Ethernet Frame (cont’d)

 Ethernet is a shared medium

 A wishes to send to B
 If C is already sending to D, then A must wait
Ethernet Frame (cont’d)

 Ethernet is a shared medium

 A sends packet, but keeps listening for a clash

(collision detection)
Ethernet Frame (cont’d)

 Ethernet is a shared medium

 Random wait means one of A or C gets in next, the

other sees this through its carrier sense
 CSMA/CD
IEEE Standard 802 for LANS and MANS
IEEE Standard 802.3 and Ethernet
1. How two systems in an Ethernet network communicate?
In a Ethernet network, a system broadcasts the data using a Ethernet frame.
The destination system is specified in the Ethernet frame using its Ethernet
address. All the systems in the network listen for an Ethernet frame with
their Ethernet address in it. When a system receives an Ethernet frame with
its address in it, it processes the frame and sends it to the higher layers (like
IP) for further processing.
2. What is a "collision"?
At any one instance, in an Ethernet network, only one device can transmit.
If two devices transmit at the same instance, then the signals from both
devices will collide and a "collision" will occur. When a "collision" occurs,
the signals will get distorted and the frame will be lost. Collisions are very
common in a Ethernet network.
3. How is "collision" handled in Ethernet networks?
Ethernet uses the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) media access control mechanism to detect and recover from a
collision.
What is CSMA/CD?
CSMA/CD is a media access control mechanism used in Ethernet to
recover from frame collision. The following steps are used to recover from
a collision.
Step 1: Before an Ethernet device sends a frame on the Ethernet cable, it
listens to find if another device is already transmitting a frame (Carrier
Sense).
Step 2: Once the device finds that other devices are not transmitting any
frame, it starts transmitting the frame. If two devices detect that the
Ethernet cable is free at the same time, then both will start transmitting the
frames (Multiple Access). This will result in collision.
Step 3: The Ethernet devices while transmitting the frames, also listen for
the collision. (Collision Detect).
Step 4: If they detect a collision, both the devices stop sending the frame
(back off).
Step 5: They retry the transmission after a logarithmic time-out period.
This process is repeated till the frame is transmitted successfully, for a
maximum of 16 times. The frame is discarded after the 16th retry.
 Physical Layer Adressing
1. What is an Ethernet address?
Each device in an Ethernet network is uniquely identified by a 48 bit
(6 bytes) address called Ethernet address. Ethernet address is also
known as Media Access Control (MAC) address. Ethernet addresses
are represented as six pairs of hexadecimal digits separated by a
colon. Ethernet address are buried in the network adapter by the
manufacturer. A Ethernet address of a device cannot be changed.
Example: 00:60:08:11:B1:AB, 00:00:c0:5e:83:0e
2. What is a broadcast address?
The Ethernet address in which all the bits are 1 is known as a
broadcast address. It is represented as FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF. A
frame with this address is received and processed by all the nodes in
the network.
 LAB: Format of an Ethernet frame

Destination Source MAC Frame type Data CRC

MAC Address Address
(6 bytes) (6 bytes) (2 bytes) (1500 bytes) (4 bytes)

Using TCPDUMP read the Ethernet frames into a text

file and analyse them in order to identify the fields.
What is MTU?

Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) is the maximum number of

bytes that can be transmitted in a single transmission unit.
• Every communication medium has a MTU. For Ethernet, the
MTU of a frame is 1500.
• DMTU changes for differenet physical networks
Ethernet Hardware

100BaseT4 Twisted pair 100m 100Mb/s

100BaseT Twisted pair 100m 100Mb/s
100BaseF Fibre optic 2000m 100Mb/s
1000BaseT Twisted pair 100m 1Gb/s

 Plus several others ...

Ethernet Hardware

 10Base5: fat coaxial cable (yellow) with vampire

taps and drop cables (blue) to the hosts, AUI
plugs
 10Base2: Thinnet, simple coaxial cable, BNC
connectors directly to the hosts
 10BaseT: twisted pair (UTP), RJ45 plugs, each
host connects to a central hub
Ethernet Hardware

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Category 1: No performance criteria
 Category 2: Rated to 1 MHz (used for telephone
wiring)
 Category 3: Rated to 16 MHz (used for Ethernet
10BaseT)
 Category 4: Rated to 20 MHz (used for Token-
Ring, 10BaseT)
 Category 5: Rated to 100 MHz (used for
1000BaseT, 100BaseT, 10BaseT)
Ethernet Hardware

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Enhanced Category 5: Rated to 200 MHz (used
for 1000BaseT, 100BaseT, 10BaseT)
 Category 6: Rated to 250 MHz (used for
1000BaseT)
 Category 7: for the future, but should be
shielded twisted pairs (STP), new connectors
(GG45), 600MHz
Ethernet Hardware: Hubs

 A hub simply echoes all inputs to all outputs

 Provides a single collision domain
 The available bandwidth shared between all the
hosts
Ethernet Hardware: Switches

 A switch understands the link layer and forwards

a packet to the appropriate single output
 Each output cable is now a separate collision
domain
 The full bandwidth available on each output
 Collisions only if two hosts send to the same
destination simultaneously
Ethernet Hardware: Switches

 Switches can store and forward packets

 Then there can be no collisions and we can do
away with CSMA/CD
 Buffers can fill up, though, then packets will be
dropped
Ethernet Hardware

 Switches can cut through, sending the start of the

packet onwards before the tail has arrived
 Less latency through the switch, but would
forward corrupted packets
Ethernet Hardware: Switches

 Switches can run full duplex, with independent

inward and outward traffic to each host
 This gives twice the total bandwidth
 No collisions possible as inward and outward
traffic runs over different twisted pairs
Ethernet Hardware: Switches

 10Mb/s, 100Mb/s, 1Gb/s, ...

 These can autonegotiate to select optimum speed
 Gigabit over copper: very complicated hardware
 Gigabit CSMA/CD requires carrier extension to
make the packets big enough
 Compensates with packet bursting
Ethernet Hardware: Switches

 10Gb/s Ethernet coming soon

 Full duplex switched only, no CSMA/CD
 Mainly fibre optic, but copper is under
consideration
 40Gb/s and 100Gb/s Ethernet in the planning
stages
 Proponents claim that Ethernet will take over
the world!
ADSL

 Another technology to send data down

telephone lines, Asymmetric Digital Subscriber
Line
 The current technology of choice for Internet to
the home
ADSL Modems

 Analogue modems are limited to 56Kb/s, the

maximum speed available from a standard
analogue telephone line: all frequencies apart
from a 3KHz chunk centred on the human voice
are filtered out and thrown away
 The telephone cable is capable of more, ADSL tries
to take advantage of this
 ADSL (one of a series of DSL standards) requires
new hardware in the home and in the telephone
exchange
ADSL Features

 Available bandwidth decreases as cable length

increases: a practical limit of about 5-6km (3-3.5
miles)
 Typical ADSL allows up to 8Mb/s downstream and
960Kb/s upstream
 A common method of delivery of ADSL to the
home is to use a modem that plugs into the USB
port on a computer
Then a Web browser will use HTML over HTTP over TCP
over IP over PPP over AAL5 over ATM over ADSL over
USB over copper!