The Root Cause of Boiler Tube

Failures
 The following boiler tube failure mechanisms are
some of the most common that occur on modern
operating boilers.

• Waterside failure mechanisms

• Fireside failure mechanisms

• General failure mechanisms

 Waterside failure
Caustic attack
• Symptoms: Localized wall loss on the inside diameter
(ID) surface of the tube, resulting in increased stress
and strain in the tube wall.

• Causes: Caustic attack occurs when there is excessive

deposition on ID tube surfaces.
This leads to diminished cooling water flow in contact
with the tube, which in turn causes local under-deposit
boiling and concentration of boiler water chemicals.
If combined with boiler water chemistry upsets of high
pH, it results in a caustic condition which corrosively
attacks and breaks down protective magnetite.
Caustic Corrosion
• Caustic corrosion / Caustic attack occurs when
alkalinity of boiler water increases.
Caustic corrosion develops from deposition of
feed water corrosion products in which NaOH
can concentrate to high PH levels.
At high PH level, the tube steel's protective
magnetic oxide coating is solubilized and rapid
corrosion occurs as per the reaction.
(Caustic attack –Cond )

• Components typically affected: Furnace wall

tubes or any inclined tube.

• Solutions: To prevent reoccurrence of caustic

attack, operators should prevent accumulation of
excessive deposits and control water chemistry so
that boiler water does not locally form caustic in
areas where chemicals concentrate.
Controlling water chemistry can be achieved by
assuring appropriate feed water chemistry with
phosphate boiler water treatments.
Oxygen pitting

• Symptoms: Aggressive localized corrosion and loss of tube

wall. Pits can act as stress-concentration sites which can be
initiation points for stress-related corrosion mechanisms.

• Causes: Oxygen pitting occurs with the presence of excessive

oxygen in boiler water.
It can occur during operation as a result of in-leakage of air at
pumps, or failure in operation of pre-boiler water treatment
equipment.
This also may occur during extended out-of-service periods,, if
proper procedures are not followed in layup.

Wetted surfaces are subject to oxidation as the water reacts

with the iron to form iron oxide.
• Components typically affected: During outage
periods, flooded or non-drainable surfaces, such
as superheater loops or sagging horizontal
superheater and reheater tubes and supply lines,
are most susceptible.
Also, when poorly deaerated water is used for
startup or for accelerated cooling of a boiler.

• Solutions: Follow proper layup procedures during

boiler outages and improve oxygen control during
boiler startups and boiler operation.
Hydrogen damage
• Symptoms: Inter-granular micro-cracking.
Loss of ductility or embrittlement of the tube material
leading to brittle catastrophic rupture.
( A catastrophic failure is a sudden and total failure from
which recovery is impossible. )
• Causes: Most commonly associated with excessive deposition
on ID tube surfaces, coupled with a boiler water low pH
excursion.
Water chemistry upset , due to condenser leaks, particularly
with salt water cooling medium.
Leads to acidic (low pH) contaminants that can be
concentrated in the deposit.
Under-deposit corrosion releases atomic hydrogen which
migrates into the tube wall metal, reacts with carbon in the
steel (decarburization), and causes inte-rgranular separation.
• Components typically affected: Usually occurs in
regions of high heat flux and is generally confined to
water-wall tubes.

• Solutions: Prevention of scale on the water side of

the tubing, as well as tight control of the water
chemistry, can help prevent hydrogen damage.
Acid attack

• Symptoms: Corrosive attack of the tube metal surfaces

resulting in an irregular pitted or swiss cheese appearance
on the tube ID.

• Causes: Most commonly associated with poor process

control during boiler chemical cleanings, inadequate
cleaning of residual acid, and/or inadequate post cleaning
passivation.

( Passivation is the process of treating or coating a metal in

order to reduce the chemical reactivity of its surface.
• Components typically affected: Water wall
tubes.

Solutions:
• Control water chemistry,
• maintain proper controls during boiler
chemical cleanings.
Stress corrosion cracking

• Symptoms: Failures are characterized by a thick wall, brittle-type crack.

May be found at locations of higher external stresses, such as near
attachments.
Most commonly associated with superheater materials and can lead to
either trans-granular or inter-granular crack propagation in the tube
wall.
Stress corrosion cracks are typically branched with numerous small
secondary cracks associated with the main fracture area.

• Causes: It occurs where a combination of high-tensile stresses and a

corrosive fluid are present.
The damage results from cracks that propagate from the ID.
The source of corrosive fluid may be carryover into the superheater
from the steam drum or from contamination during boiler acid
cleaning if the superheater is not properly protected.
• Components typically affected: Stainless steel
superheater and reheater tubes.

• Solutions: Avoid water carryover control

hydrotest methods, flush after cleaning.
Waterside corrosion fatigue

• Symptoms: ID initiated, wide trans-granular cracks which

typically occur adjacent to external attachments. Failures
are catastrophic, thick-lipped failures that initiate from ID
cracks .

• Causes: Tube damage occurs due to the combination of

thermal fatigue and corrosion. Corrosion fatigue is
influenced by boiler design, water chemistry, boiler water
oxygen content, and boiler operation.
A combination of these effects leads to the breakdown of
the protective magnetite on the ID surface of the boiler
tube.
Loss of this protective scale exposes the tube to corrosion.
The problem is most likely to progress during boiler start-up
cycles.
• Components typically affected: The locations
of attachments and external weldments, such
as buckstay attachments, seal plates and
scallop bars, are most susceptible.

• Solutions:
Minimize constraints on tubes,
lower dissolved oxygen on start-up.
 Fireside failure
Fuel ash corrosion

• Symptoms: External tube wall loss and increasing tube strain.

Tubes commonly have a pock-marked appearance when scale and
corrosion products are removed.

• Causes: Fuel ash corrosion is a function of the ash characteristics of

the fuel and the boiler design.
The ash characteristics are considered in the boiler design when
establishing the size, geometry and materials used in the boiler.
Combustion gas and metal temperatures in the convection passes
are important considerations.
• Components typically affected: Super heaters and re-
heaters.

• Solutions: The most straightforward method to reduce fuel

ash corrosion is by using materials with higher chromium
concentrations.
In general, materials with >20% Cr have significantly lower
fuel ash corrosion rates than materials with <20% Cr.
The installation of austenitic stainless steel tube shields has
been successfully implemented to reduce fuel ash
corrosion in boiler locations that exhibit very corrosive
conditions.

Additions of calcium and magnesium to the fuel can also

help mitigate fuel ash corrosion.
High-temperature oxidation

• Similar in appearance and often confused with

fuel ash corrosion, high-temperature oxidation
can occur locally in areas that have the highest
outside diameter (OD) surface temperature
relative to the oxidation limit of the tube
material.
Determining the root cause of the mechanisms of
fuel ash corrosion or high-temperature oxidation
is best accomplished by tube analysis and
evaluation of scale and deposits.
Waterwall fireside corrosion

• Symptoms: External tube metal loss (wastage)

leading to thinning and increasing tube strain.

• Causes: Corrosion occurs on external surfaces

of water-wall tubes when the combustion
process produces a reducing atmosphere
This is common in the lower furnace of
recovery boilers.
• Components typically affected: Waterwall tubes.

• Solutions: The primary method employed to

combat furnace wall corrosion is the use of high-
Ni/high-Cr weld overlays on tubes in the locations
that are experiencing the worst corrosion.
Corrosion-resistant thermal sprays may also be
considered for this application.
Fireside corrosion fatigue

• Symptoms: Tubes develop a series of cracks that initiate on the OD

surface and propagate into the tube wall. Since the damage
develops over longer periods, tube surfaces tend to develop
appearances described as elephant hide, alligator hide or craze
cracking. The damage is most commonly seen as a series of
circumferential cracks.

• Causes: The damage initiation and propagation result from

corrosion in combination with thermal fatigue.
Thermal cycling, in addition to subjecting the material to cyclic
stress, can initiate cracking of the less elastic external tube scales
and expose the tube base material to repeated corrosion.
• Components typically affected: This type of
corrosion fatigue is commonly found on furnace wall
tubes of coal-fired once-through boiler designs, but
has also occurred on tubes in drum-type boilers.

• Solutions: Reduce the ramp rates during start-up and

shut-down to reduce the thermal stresses. Optimize
sootblowing operations to minimize thermal
stresses.
Erosion

• Symptoms: Tube experiences metal loss from the OD of the

tube. Damage will be oriented on the impact side of the
tube. Ultimate failure results from rupture due to
increasing strain as tube material erodes away.

• Causes: Erosion of tube surfaces occurs from impingement

on the external surfaces.
The erosion medium can be any abrasive in the combustion
gas flow stream, but is most commonly associated with
impingement of fly ash or soot-blowing steam.
In cases where soot-blower steam is the primary cause, the
erosion may be accompanied by thermal fatigue.
• Components typically affected: Common near
sootblowers; on the leading edges of economizers,
superheaters.

• Solutions: For fly ash erosion, distribute flow evenly

through the boiler and consider burning a lower ash
fuel.
Optimize sootblowing operations to minimize
damaging impingement.
Mechanical fatigue

• Symptoms: Damage most often results in an OD

initiated crack. The failures tend to be localized to
the area of high stress or constraint.

• Causes: Fatigue is the result of cyclical stresses in

the component. Distinct from thermal fatigue
effects, mechanical fatigue damage is associated
with externally applied stresses. Stresses may be
associated with vibration due to flue gas flow or
sootblowers.
• Components typically affected: Fatigue
failures will most often occur at areas of
constraint such as tube penetrations, welds,
or supports.

• Solutions: Identify and minimize the source of

thermal or mechanical cyclic stresses.
General failure
Short-term overheat

• Symptoms: Failures result in a ductile rupture of the tube metal and

are normally characterized by the classic fish mouth opening in the
tube where the fracture surface is a thin edge.

• Causes: Short-term overheat failures are most common during

boiler start-up. Failures result when the tube metal temperature is
extremely elevated from a lack of cooling steam or water flow.
A typical example is when superheater tubes have not cleared of
condensation during boiler start-up, obstructing steam flow. Tube
metal temperatures reach combustion gas temperatures of 1600F
(870C) or greater which lead to tube failure.
• Components typically affected: Furnace wall
tubes, superheaters, reheaters.

• Solutions: Ensure that no blockages exist

within the tubes and bends. Follow prescribed
shut-down and start-up procedures to boil out
any condensate.
Long-term overheat

• Symptoms: The failed tube has minimal swelling and a longitudinal

split that is narrow when compared to short-term overheat. Tube
metal often has heavy external scale build-up and secondary
cracking.

• Causes: Long-term overheat occurs over a period of months or

years. Superheater and reheater tubes commonly fail after many
years of service as a result of creep.
During normal operation, alloy superheater tubes will experience
increasing temperature and strain over the life of the tube until the
creep life is expended.
Furnace water wall tubes can also fail from long-term overheat.
In the case of water wall tubes, the tube temperature increases
abnormally, most commonly from waterside problems such as
deposits, scale, or restricted flow.
In the case of either superheater or water wall tubes, eventual
failure is by creep rupture.
• Creep may be defined as a time-dependent
deformation at elevated temperature and constant
stress. It follows, then, that a failure from such a
condition is referred to as a creep failure or,
occasionally, a stress rupture.
The temperature at which creep begins depends on
the alloy composition.
• Components typically affected: Furnace wall
tubes, superheaters, reheaters.

• Solutions: Correct flame impingement issues on

waterwall tubes. Correct water/steam circulation
maldistribution issues. Chemically clean tubes to
improve heat transfer. Balance furnace/flue gas
temperatures with circulation to reduce the tube
temperatures.
Graphitization

• Symptoms: Failure is brittle with a thick edge

fracture.

• Causes: Long-term operation at relatively high

metal temperatures can result in damage in
carbon steels of higher carbon content, or
carbon-molybdenum steel, particularly in weld
heat affected zones (HAZ), and result in a unique
degradation of the material.
Sudden tube failures can occur with no warning.
• Components typically affected: Most
prevalent in the portions of the superheater
and reheater that operate at relatively low
temperatures (such as piping).

• Solutions: Use available graphitization

prediction curves to determine locations that
are at greatest risk.
Replace components that display evidence of
graphitization.
Dissimilar metal weld (DMW) failure
• Symptoms: Failure is preceded by little or no warning of tube
degradation. The material fails at the ferritic side of the weld,
along the weld fusion line. A failure tends to be catastrophic
as the entire tube will fail across the circumference of the
tube section.
Causes: DMW describes the butt weld where an autenitic
(stainless steel) material joins a ferritic alloy material.
Failures at DMW locations occur on the ferritic side of the butt
weld.
These failures are attributed to several factors:
high stresses at the austenitic-to-ferritic interface due to
differences in expansion properties of the two materials,
excessive external loading stresses and thermal cycling,.
Failures are a function of operating temperatures and unit
design.
• Components typically affected: Superheater
and reheater outlet bank connections to the
outlet headers.

• Solutions:
Ensure that locations where DMWs are
present are not being overheated during
operation.
Boiler water test

Alkalinity Test
• A Boiler is required to operate in between 9.5 to 11.5
P.H condition based on its type. ( Auxiliary – 9.5 to
10.5 & Large Boilers 10.5 to 11.5). The test will show
the alkalinity of the boiler water due to hydroxides
and carbonates. It help protect the boiler from
caustic embitterment.
Hardness Test
• High magnesium and calcium content in the boiler
feed water can lead to hardness of boiler water. This
condition over time can cause severe scaling on the
tubes and boiler fittings. The test represents the
hardness of the boiler water indicating the required
amount of boiler chemicals to be added time to time.
Chloride ppm Test
• It helps to know amount of salt dissolved in the
water. It is exceptionally great at finding
contamination due to mixing of sea water and plan
effective blow down procedures.
Phosphate Test
• Too much of phosphate on one hand can cause
priming and foaming while too less or none in the
boiler water can accelerate corrosion and scale
formation. So it is necessary to maintain a right
balance to have the best performance.
P.H Test
• Boiler water is always needed to maintain at P.H
9.5 to 11.5. P.H is calculated by the amount of
hydrogen or hydroxide ion in the water. Excess of
hydrogen ion makes it acidic while more amount
of hydroxyl ion can make it alkaline. The test is
rather simple but important based on colour
comparison. The amount of chemical dosage for
boiler is calculated based on this test.
Dissolved Oxygen Test
• Oxygen content is determined in boiler water to
avoid corrosion. The process ( mechanical or
chemical ) required to remove dissolved oxygen also
depends on its amount; so its necessary to
determine the right concentration of oxygen
dissolved in water.
Chemicals Used in Boiler Water Treatment

• Various set of chemicals are used for boiler water

treatment. Oxygen scavenger such as hydrazine,
carbohydrazide, sodium sulphate and tannin is
used to remove the dissolved oxygen in the boiler
water. This prevent boiler corrosion by removing
or reducing oxygen content in the system.
Similarly chemicals like that of sodium hydroxide,
sodium carbonate, sodium hexa meta phosphate
and Tri-sodium phosphate used to maintain
alkalinity of the boiler water.
• Special corrosion inhibiting compound such as
sodium bisulfite, carbohydrazide and
cyclohexylamine are used to reduce scale formation
in boiler tubes. Sometimes a sludge conditioner
compound is also being added to help aid blow down
process. These chemicals can be in the form of
coagulants, anti-foams and other dispersing agents
such as starch and tannin.
• Other special chemicals are also added sometimes to
remove the dissolved solids from water. If remained
unchecked for a long time they will carryover to the
turbines depending upon the evaporation rate and
turbine usage. There it can react with the turbine
material forming thick scale affecting their overall
efficiency. It is a normal practice to keep dissolved
solids below 2000ppm with regular boiler water
treatment.
Thank you
• EGB fires can be differentiated in two or three
stages depending upon the intensity of the
fire.
• Stage 1: Normal Soot fire
• Stage 2: Hydrogen Fire
• Stage 3: Iron Fire
Stage 1: Normal Soot Fire:
• Soot is deposited in the water tube of the
exhaust boiler. When the ship is at slow speed,
the exhaust temperature of the main engine
may vary from 100 to 200 deg C. This
temperature is enough to ignite “wet soot”
whose ignition temperature is around 150
deg. C.
 With reference to the exhaust gas boiler of your
ship explain the following: A. Composition and
reasons of soot deposits. B. Various stages of soot
fire leading to high temperature fire. C. Procedure
to be followed for firefighting under different
stages of soot fire. D. Actions required prior to
dry running of an exhaust gas boiler. 2019/OCT
Composition soot deposits.
• The main constituent of the soot deposit is
particulates but in addition, some unburnt
residues of fuel and lubricating oils may
be deposited in the boiler.
Actions required prior to dry running of an exhaust gas
boiler.

• Actions to be taken during dry running:

Increase the frequency of sootblowing
considerably, and perform sootblowing several
times prior to manoeuvring. Inspect
the boiler frequently, and if any soot is
present, then water wash the boiler and
increase the sootblowing frequency.
Soot deposit and fire in the EGB can be-
• Due to the poor combustion of fuel in the main
engine
• Due to prolong slow steaming
• Long maneuvering of the ship
• Frequent starting and stopping of the engine
• Poor grade of fuel oil/ cylinder oil
• Low exhaust gas velocity passing the EGB
• Low water inlet velocity in the water tubes
• Low circulation water flow ratio
Stage 1: Normal Soot Fire:
• Soot is deposited in the water tube of the exhaust boiler.
When the ship is at slow speed, the exhaust temperature of
the main engine may vary from 100 to 200 deg C. This
temperature is enough to ignite “wet soot” whose ignition
temperature is around 150 deg. C.

• If the soot is “dry”, it will not get ignited at such low

temperature (150 deg. C) but when the engine is running at
higher speed and the temperature of gases reaches to
above 300 deg. C, then in the presence of excess
oxygen the deposits of combustible materials will liberate
sufficient vapor, which can be ignited by a spark or a flame.

• The above soot fires are called small or normal soot fire
because the heat energy is conducted away by the
circulating boiler water and steam. Also, the sparks remain
inside the funnel or diminish while passing through the
flame arrestor in the funnel top.
• Stage 1: Normal Soot fire
• Stage 2: Hydrogen Fire
• Stage 3: Iron Fire
Stage 2: Hydrogen Fire
• Hydrogen fire in an EGB occurs when the
chemical reaction of dissociation of water takes
place at a temperature above 1000 deg. C. This
leads to the formation of Hydrogen (H2) and
Carbon mono-oxide (CO) which are both
combustible in nature.
• 2H2O= 2H2 + O2 (Dissociation of water Leading
to formation of hydrogen-H2)
• H 2 O + C =H 2 + CO (Reaction of water with
carbon deposit leading to formation of carbon
monoxide-CO)
Stage 3: Iron Fire
• At this stage, the chain reaction of oxidation of
iron metal starts at a high temperature of 1100
deg. C which means at such high temperature the
tube will start burning itself, leading to complete
meltdown of tube stacks.
• 2Fe + O2 2=FeO+ heat
• It is strictly advised not to use water or steam at
this stage to fight the fire because the overheated
iron will react with water to continue this
reaction.
• Fe + H2O =FeO+ H2 + heat
The response for tacking EGB fire will be different for different
stages.
• When there is stage 1 fire, i.e. normal soot fire:
• a) Stop the main engine, and thereby the oxygen supply to
the fire
• b) Continue operating the water-circulating pump. Never
stop the pump
• c) Never use soot blowers for firefighting whatever type it is
– Steam or Air as both will accelerate the effect of fire
• d) Ensure all the exhaust valves in the stopped Main engine
are in closed position so as to cut any chance of air supply
to the soot fire
• e) Cover the filter of turbocharger
• f) Water washing, if fitted, may be used to extinguish the
fire. This is normally connected to the ship’s firefighting
water system
• g) External boundary cooling can be done
For Major Fire:
• a) Stop the main engine, if it is not stopped
already
• b) Stop the circulating water pump.
• c) Shut all the inlet and outlet valves on the water
circulation line
• d) Discharge the (remaining) water from the
exhaust gas boiler sections by draining
• e) Cool down with plenty of splash water to
boundary cool the heart of the fire (Take care not
to splash water in other parts as water can
accelerate the reaction)