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Metallic materials
Pure materials
Alloys - components
- phases
- systems - homogeneous
- heterogeneous
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Solid state
Atomic structures:
Microstructure:
Point faults
(vacancies, interstitial atoms, substitution atoms)
Line faults
(dislocations – edge, screw and general)
Areic faults
(stacking faults, free surfaces, grain boundaries)
Volume faults
(coherent particles)
Polycrystalline:
Microstructure:
Small structure components visible only using the suitable type
of microscope:
atoms, dislocations, grains, grain boundaries, secondary phase
particles (precipitate), impurities, number of presented phases,
their distribution, portion …
In dimensions about nm and bigger
Macrostructure:
Visible by eye or with help of magnifying glass.
Large structure components as big or dendritic grains
(after casting, or some heat treatment), impurities, …
In dimensions about tens of mm and bigger.
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Pure metals:
Ideal pure metals are composed only with the same atoms.
Real material content impurities becoming from their
manufacturing.
Pure metals are marked as 99,9 %. Very pure materials content
99,999 % of matrix atoms
Alloys:
Are solid state multicomponent systems containing except
atoms of fundamental metal the added alloying elements and
elements of impurities more.
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Alloys:
Terms:
Solubility
Solubility is a maximum concentration of solute atoms in solid
solution.
Solid solution
Solid solution is formed in host material latice, where the atoms
of impurities are solved.
Atoms, which are smaller than atoms of the host material forms
interstitial solid solution. Atoms fill the volumes between atoms
of the host material lattice (carbon in iron).
Atoms with close diameter (difference les 15 %) replaces some
atoms in host materials. This type of solid solution is
substitutional (cooper and nickel).
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Solid solutions
Solubility
Equilibrium
Equilibrium between phases in the system is described with the
Gibbs free energy G = H – TS.
P+F=C+N
P - number of present phases
F - number of degrees of freedom
(temperature, pressure, composition etc.)
C - number of components (elements or stable
compound of phase diagrams)
N - number of noncompositional variables
(temperature, pressure)
Materials science I - Metallic materials
F=C+N-P
Generally N = 2 (if the temperature and pressure play role)
(equilibrium in system with gaseous, liquid and solid state)
Diffusion
Phenomenon of material transport by atomic motion – in solid
state only one possible. Phase changes in the solid state systems
are mostly possible due to diffusion.
Diffusion
Difusion couple Cu - Ni
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Mechanisms of diffusion
For atom moving into the lattice, there must be an empty place,
and the atom must break the attraction forces their neighbours.
Vacancy mechanism – moving own or substitutional atoms to position of
existing vacancies.
Interstitial diffusion – moving interstitial atoms into neighbour
interstitionals positions in lattice.
The possible but low frequented are exchange and ring mechanisms.
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Diffusion
The moving atoms from their positions is influenced by vibration in
lattice. If the amplitude of vibrations reach the value when the barrier
of atomic attraction forces is exceeded, the atom can change your
position. The energy needed for amplitude increasing is called
activation energy Qd.
Diffusion
dC
The term is concentration gradient of concentration profile
dx
ΔC C A C B
Δx x A xB
Driving force of the steady state diffusion is concentration gradient
C 2C
D 2
t x
C x C0 x
Solution is 1 erf
C s C0 2 Dt
erf is the Gausian error function
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Diffusion
x 2 2Dt
Volume or bulk diffusions is relative slow process
The diffusion is accelerated by lattice imperfections.
The other diffusion paths are along dislocation, through the grain
boundaries or along free external surfaces.
Solidification
Solidification is process of changing atomic coupling. The liquid state
of metal – melt transforms to a solid state. The system is driven to
minimize the free energy.
ΔT
ΔG ΔH ΔG = GL - GS
Tm
If the temperature decreases, the equilibrium between liquid and solid
state is violate, and nuclei of solid state (phase) can rise.
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Solidification
Nucleation
Solidification
Nucleation homogeneous – fluctuation of energy, spontaneously
heterogeneous on existing surfaces
Number of nuclei
s is the number of available
nucleation sites
Rate of nucleation
q is activation energy for
diffusion
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Solidification
Nucleation homogeneous – fluctuation of energy, spontaneously
heterogeneous on existing surfaces
Materials science I - Metallic materials
Casting structure
Ratio = bm/pb
Materials science I - Metallic materials